The uneven benefits of conservation. A spatial analysis of how different protection regimes influence local development in Polish municipalities

Rok, Jakub and Grodzicki, Maciej and Podsiadło, Martyna (2025): The uneven benefits of conservation. A spatial analysis of how different protection regimes influence local development in Polish municipalities.

Abstract

The balance between environmental protection and socioeconomic development is a critical policy challenge. Conservation efforts may constrain local development but can also generate benefits beyond nature protection itself, with effects varying across protection regimes and spatial scales. Poland presents a compelling case to examine this trade-off, given its rapid economic growth and significant expansion of PAs in recent decades. This study assesses the relationship between nature protection regimes and local development across Polish municipalities from 2009 to 2022. Using spatial econometric modelling (Spatial Durbin Error Model), we analyse the direct and indirect effects of national parks, nature reserves, and Natura 2000 sites on three dimensions of local development: economic, social, and infrastructural. The most consistent positive effects are observed for economic development in municipalities with high share of national parks and Natura 2000 sites. The effects on infrastructure development are limited: only Natura 2000 sites show a positive direct effect, while negative indirect effects suggest regional competition for investment. The social impacts of protection are predominantly negative, especially for stricter protection regimes. Moreover, these effects extend beyond administrative boundaries, likely due to interlinked labour markets. These findings challenge the notion that conservation uniformly hinders economic development. Instead, they suggest that outcomes differ depending on the protection regime, and that benefits are unevenly distributed – supporting local economic growth while reinforcing social exclusion. The study underscores the need for policies that mitigate social costs and promote more just and integrated development under expanding conservation efforts.

• Item Type: MPRA Paper
• Language: English
• Keywords: conservation policy; protected areas; Local Development; Natura 2000; Protection regime; Spatial spillovers
• Subjects: Q - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics ; Environmental and Ecological Economics > Q5 - Environmental Economics; R - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics > R1 - General Regional Economics > R14 - Land Use Patterns

References

Andam, K. S., Ferraro, P. J., & Hanauer, M. M. (2013). The effects of protected area systems on ecosystem restoration: A quasi‐experimental design to estimate the impact of Costa Rica's protected area system on forest regrowth. Conservation Letters, 6(5), 317–323. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12004 Andam, K. S., Ferraro, P. J., Sims, K. R., Healy, A., & Holland, M. B. (2010). Protected areas reduced poverty in Costa Rica and Thailand. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(22), 9996–10001. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914177107 Anselin, L. (2022). Spatial econometrics. In S. J. Rey & R. S. Franklin (Eds.), Handbook of spatial analysis in the social sciences (pp. 101-122). Edward Elgar Publishing Auliz-Ortiz, D. M., Arroyo-Rodríguez, V., Mendoza, E., & Martínez-Ramos, M. (2023). Are there trade-offs between conservation and development caused by Mexican protected areas? Land Use Policy, 127, 106581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2023.106581 Backman, S. J., Uysal, M., & Backman, K. (1991). Regional analysis of tourism resources. Annals of Tourism Research, 18(2), 323-27. Bednarska, M., & Szutowski, D. (2013). Warunki zatrudnienia w turystyce w świetle Europejskiego badania warunków pracy. Zeszyty Naukowe Wyższej Szkoły Handlu i Usług w Poznaniu, 27, 217–230. Biedka, W., Herbst, M., Rok, J., & Wojcik, P. (2022). The local‐level impact of human capital investment within the EU cohesion policy in Poland. Papers in Regional Science, 101(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/pirs.12648 Blicharska, M., Orlikowska, E. H., Roberge, J. M., & Grodzinska-Jurczak, M. (2016). Contribution of social science to large-scale biodiversity conservation: A review of research about the Natura 2000 network. Biological Conservation, 199, 110–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2016.05.007 Boćkowski, M. D., Tusznio, J., Rechciński, M., Blicharska, M., Akhshik, A., & Grodzińska-Jurczak, M. (2024). Ecosystem services approach in Turnicki National Park planning: Factors influencing the inhabitants’ perspectives on local natural resources and protected areas. Environmental Management, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-024-02016-x Bonet-García, F. J., Pérez-Luque, A. J., Moreno-Llorca, R. A., Pérez-Pérez, R., Puerta-Piñero, C., & Zamora, R. (2015). Protected areas as elicitors of human well-being in a developed region: A new synthetic (socioeconomic) approach. Biological Conservation, 187, 221–229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.04.027 Bontempi, A., Venturi, P., Del Bene, D., Scheidel, A., Zaldo-Aubanell, Q., & Maneja Zaragoza, R. (2023). Conflict and conservation: On the role of protected areas for environmental justice. Global Environmental Change, 82, 102740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2023.102740 Brockington, D., & Igoe, J. (2006). Eviction for conservation: A global overview. Conservation and Society, 4(3), 424–470. Buongiorno, A., & Intini, M. (2021). Sustainable tourism and mobility development in natural protected areas: Evidence from Apulia. Land Use Policy, 101, 105220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105220 Busscher, N., Parra, C., & Vanclay, F. (2018). Land grabbing within a protected area: The experience of local communities with conservation and forestry activities in Los Esteros del Iberá, Argentina. Land Use Policy, 78, 572-582. Canavire-Bacarreza, G., & Hanauer, M. M. (2013). Estimating the impacts of Bolivia’s protected areas on poverty. World Development, 41, 265–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.06.011 Cazzolla Gatti, R., Zannini, P., Piovesan, G., Alessi, N., Basset, A., Beierkuhnlein, C., ... & Chiarucci, A. (2023). Analysing the distribution of strictly protected areas toward the EU2030 target. Biodiversity and Conservation, 32, 3157–3174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-023-02644-5 Chmielewski, W., & Głogowska, M. (2015). Implementation of the Natura 2000 Network in Poland–an Opportunity or a Threat to Sustainable Development of Rural Areas? Study on Local Stakeholders’ Perception. Eastern European Countryside, 21, 153-169. https://doi.org/10.12775/eec-2015-0008 Churski, P., Konecka-Szydłowska, B., Herodowicz, T., & Perdał, R. (2020). Does history matter?: Development differences in Poland. In J. Bański (Ed.), Dilemmas of Regional and Local Development (pp. 185–205). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429433863 Cieślak, I., Pawlewicz, K., Pawlewicz, A., & Szuniewicz, K. (2015). Impact of the Natura 2000 network on social-economic development of rural communes in Poland. Research for Rural Development, 2, 169–175. Cremer-Schulte, D., & Dissart, J. C. (2015). Evaluating rural development in French regional nature parks. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 58(3), 383–403. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2013.859571 Cruz, A. D. L., Benedicto, J., & Gil, A. (2011). Socio-economic benefits of Natura 2000 in Azores Islands–a case study approach on ecosystem services provided by a special protected area. Journal of Coastal Research, 1955-1959. Czeszczewik, D., Ginter, A., Mikusiński, G., Pawłowska, A., Kałuża, H., Smithers, R. J., & Walankiewicz, W. (2019). Birdwatching, logging and the local economy in the Białowieża Forest, Poland. Biodiversity and Conservation, 28(11), 2967-2975. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-019-01808-6 D'Alberto, R., Pagliacci, F., & Zavalloni, M. (2023). A socioeconomic impact assessment of three Italian national parks. Journal of Regional Science, 63(1), 114-147. https://doi.org/10.1111/jors.12618 Díaz, S., Demissew, S., Carabias, J., Joly, C., Lonsdale, M., Ash, N., ... & Zlatanova, D. (2015). The IPBES Conceptual Framework—connecting nature and people. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 14, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2014.11.002 Du, W., Penabaz-Wiley, S. M., Njeru, A. M., & Kinoshita, I. (2015). Models and approaches for integrating protected areas with their surroundings: a review of the literature. Sustainability, 7(7), 8151-8177. https://doi.org/10.3390/su7078151 Dudley, N. (Ed.). (2008). Guidelines for applying protected area management categories. IUCN. European Union. (2024). Regulation (EU) 2024/1991 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 June 2024 on nature restoration and amending Regulation (EU) 2022/869. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1991/oj Dziemianowicz, W., Peszat, K., & Przyborowski, K. (2015). Natura 2000 w kontekście konkurencyjności i możliwości rozwojowych gmin w Polsce. Studia Regionalne i Lokalne, (1 (59), 86-103. https://doi.org/10.7366/1509499515904 Farkas, J. Z., & Kovács, A. D. (2021). Nature conservation versus agriculture in the light of socio-economic changes over the last half-century–Case study from a Hungarian national park. Land Use Policy, 101, 105131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.105131 Folke, C., Pritchard Jr, L., Berkes, F., Colding, J., & Svedin, U. (2007). The problem of fit between ecosystems and institutions: ten years later. Ecology and society, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-02064-120130 Gantioler, S., Rayment, M., ten Brink, P., McConville, A., Kettunen, M., & Bassi, S. (2014). The costs and socio-economic benefits associated with the Natura 2000 network. International Journal of Sustainable Society, 6(1-2), 135-157. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSSOC.2014.057894 GDOŚ (2024). Generalna Dyrekcja Ochrony Środowiska. Data as of 1.04.2024. Retrieved from: https://www.gov.pl/web/gdos Gibbs, D., While, A., & Jonas, A. E. (2007). Governing nature conservation: the European Union Habitats Directive and conflict around estuary management. Environment and Planning A, 39(2), 339-358. https://doi.org/10.1068/a37399 Głogowska, M., Szendera, W., & Chmielewski, W. (2013). Konflikty społeczne na obszarach Natura 2000 w Polsce. Woda-Środowisko-Obszary Wiejskie, 13. Grodzińska-Jurczak, M., & Cent, J. (2011). Expansion of nature conservation areas: problems with Natura 2000 implementation in Poland? Environmental Management, 47, 11-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-010-9583-2 Grodzińska-Jurczak, M., Strzelecka, M., Kamal, S., & Gutowska, J. (2012). Effectiveness of Nature Conservation–a case of Natura 2000 sites in Poland. Protected Area Management, 183. https://doi.org/10.5772/50664 Gurney, G. G., Adams, V. M., Álvarez-Romero, J. G., & Claudet, J. (2023). Area-based conservation: Taking stock and looking ahead. One Earth, 6(2), 98-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2023.01.012 GUS BDL (2024). Główny Urząd Statystyczny: Bank Danych Lokalnych. Data as of 1.04.2024. Retrieved from: https://bdl.stat.gov.pl/bdl/metadane Gutowska, J. (2015). Nature conservation in local communities’ development: Case of Natura 2000 in Polish municipalities (Doctoral dissertation). https://ruj.uj.edu.pl/bitstreams/5af52fd5-3559-46f5-b2a4-9662b00ba96b/download Hjerpe, E., Armatas, C. A., & Haefele, M. (2022). Amenity-based development and protected areas in the American West. Land Use Policy, 116, 106064. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106064 Kandel, P., Pandit, R., White, B., & Polyakov, M. (2022). Do protected areas increase household income? Evidence from a meta-analysis. World Development, 159, 106024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.106024 Kauano, É. E., Silva, J. M. C., Diniz Filho, J. A. F., & Michalski, F. (2020). Do protected areas hamper economic development of the Amazon region? An analysis of the relationship between protected areas and the economic growth of Brazilian Amazon municipalities. Land Use Policy, 92, 104473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2020.104473 Kluvankova‐Oravska, T., Chobotová, V., Banaszak, I., Slavikova, L., & Trifunovova, S. (2009). From government to governance for biodiversity: the perspective of central and Eastern European transition countries. Environmental Policy and Governance, 19(3), 186-196. https://doi.org/10.1002/eet.508 Krugman, P. (2011). The new economic geography, now middle-aged. Regional Studies, 45(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2011.537127 LeSage, J. P. (2014). What regional scientists need to know about spatial econometrics. The Review of Regional Studies, 44(1), 13–32. Locke, H., & Dearden, P. (2005). Rethinking protected area categories and the new paradigm. Environmental Conservation, 32(1), 1-10. Lundmark, L. J., Fredman, P., & Sandell, K. (2010). National parks and protected areas and the role for employment in tourism and forest sectors: A Swedish case. Ecology and Society, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-03175-150119 Mammides, C. (2020). Evidence from eleven countries in four continents suggests that protected areas are not associated with higher poverty rates. Biological Conservation, 241, 108353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108353 Marcińczak, S., & Bartosiewicz, B. (2018). Commuting patterns and urban form: Evidence from Poland. Journal of Transport Geography, 70, 31-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2018.05.019 Maxwell, S. L., Cazalis, V., Dudley, N., Hoffmann, M., Rodrigues, A. S. L., Stolton, S., Visconti, P., Woodley, S., Kingston, N., Lewis, E., Maron, M., Strassburg, B. B. N., Wenger, A., Jonas, H. D., Venter, O., & Watson, J. E. M. (2020). Area-based conservation in the twenty-first century. Nature, 586(7828), 217-227. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2773-z McGranahan, D. A. (2008). Landscape influence on recent rural migration in the US. Landscape and Urban Planning, 85(3-4), 228-240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.12.001 Ministerstwo Sportu i Turystyki. (2017). Badanie rynku pracy w turystyce. Warszawa, https://www.gov.pl/web/sport/rynek-pracy-w-turystyce Ministry of Housing, Communities & Local Government. (2019, September 26). English Indices of Deprivation 2019: Statistical release. GOV.UK. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5d8e26f6ed915d5570c6cc55/IoD2019_Statistical_Release.pdf Mose, I. (Ed.). (2007). Protected areas and regional development in Europe: Towards a new model for the 21st century. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Mose, I., & Weixlbaumer, N. (2006). Protected areas as a tool for regional development? Exploring the Nature of Management, 149. Mouillot, D., Velez, L., Albouy, C., Casajus, N., Claudet, J., Delbar, V., ... & Thuiller, W. (2024). The socioeconomic and environmental niche of protected areas reveals global conservation gaps and opportunities. Nature communications, 15(1), 9007. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-53241-1 Nardo, M., Saisana, M., Saltelli, A., Tarantola, S., Hoffmann, A., & Giovannini, E. (2008). Handbook on constructing composite indicators: Methodology and user guide (OECD Statistics Working Papers, No. JRC47008). OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264043466-en Niedziałkowski, K., Blicharska, M., Mikusiński, G., & Jędrzejewska, B. (2014). Why is it difficult to enlarge a protected area? Ecosystem services perspective on the conflict around the extension of the Białowieża National Park in Poland. Land Use Policy, 38, 314-329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.12.002 Oldekop, J. A., Holmes, G., Harris, W. E., & Evans, K. L. (2015). A global assessment of the social and conservation outcomes of protected areas. Conservation Biology, 30, 133-141. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12568 Petrova, S. (2016). Communities in transition: Protected nature and local people in Eastern and Central Europe. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1515/soeu-2015-630311 Piasecki, A. (2019). Water and sewage management issues in rural Poland. Water, 11(3), 625. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11030625 Polish Press Agency. (2024, September 10th). Polish climate ministry wants to introduce environmental subsidy for municipalities. Biznes PAP. https://biznes.pap.pl/wiadomosci/gospodarka/polish-climate-ministry-wants-introduce-environmental-subsidy-municipalities (last accessed: 1.04.2025) Reinius, S. W., & Fredman, P. (2007). Protected areas as attractions. Annals of Tourism Research, 34(4), 839-854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2007.03.011 Robalino, J., & Villalobos, L. (2015). Protected areas and economic welfare: An impact evaluation of national parks on local workers' wages in Costa Rica. Environment and Development Economics, 20(3), 283-310. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X14000461 Roe, D. (2008). The origins and evolution of the conservation-poverty debate: A review of key literature, events, and policy processes. Oryx, 42(4), 491-503. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605308002032 Rok, J., & Herbst, M. (2023). The Environmental Kuznets Curve inside a city region: What is the role of suburbanization in decoupling air pollution from growing income? Cities, 139, 104381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2023.104381 Rüttenauer, T. (2022). Spatial regression models: A systematic comparison of different model specifications using Monte Carlo experiments. Sociological Methods & Research, 51(2), 728-759. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124119882467 Schirpke, U., Marino, D., Marucci, A., & Palmieri, M. (2018). Positive effects of payments for ecosystem services on biodiversity and socio-economic development: Examples from Natura 2000 sites in Italy. Ecosystem Services, 34, 96-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.10.006 Siltanen, J., Petursson, J. G., Cook, D., & Davidsdottir, B. (2022). Diversity in protected area governance and its implications for management: An institutional analysis of selected parks in Iceland. Land, 11(2), 315. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11020315 Sims, K. R. (2010). Conservation and development: Evidence from Thai protected areas. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 60(2), 94-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2010.05.003 Sims, K. R., Thompson, J. R., Meyer, S. R., Nolte, C., & Plisinski, J. S. (2019). Assessing the local economic impacts of land protection. Conservation Biology, 33(5), 1035-1044. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13318 Smętkowski, M. (2018). The role of exogenous and endogenous factors in the growth of regions in Central and Eastern Europe: The metropolitan/non-metropolitan divide in the pre-and post-crisis era. European Planning Studies, 26(2), 256-278. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2017.1361585 Smętkowski, M., & Wójcik, P. (2012). Regional convergence in Central and Eastern European countries: A multidimensional approach. European Planning Studies, 20(6), 923-939. https://doi.org/10.1080/09654313.2012.673560 Stanny, M. (2010). Poziom rozwoju gospodarczego i społecznego gmin wiejskich regionu Zielonych Płuc Polski względem klasyfikacji obszarowej sieci Natura 2000. Wieś i Rolnictwo, 146(1), 93-105. https://doi.org/10.53098/wir.2010.1.146/05 Stern, M. J. (2008). The power of trust: Toward a theory of local opposition to neighboring protected areas. Society and Natural Resources, 21(10), 859-875. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920801973763 Strzelecka, M., Rechciński, M., Tusznio, J., Akhshik, A., & Grodzińska-Jurczak, M. (2021). Environmental justice in Natura 2000 conservation conflicts: The case for resident empowerment. Land Use Policy, 107, 105494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105494 Śleszyński, P. (2017). Wyznaczenie i typologia miast średnich tracących funkcje społeczno-gospodarcze. Polish Geographical Review/Przegląd Geograficzny, 89(4). https://doi.org/10.7163/PrzG.2017.4.3 Tobler, W. (2004). On the first law of geography: A reply. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 94(2), 304-310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2004.09402009.x Townsend, P. (1987). Deprivation. Journal of Social Policy, 16(2), 125-146. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279400020341 Vilela, T., Malky-Harb, A., & Mendizábal-Vergara, C. (2022). The impact of protected areas on poverty: Evidence from Chile. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural, 95. Waltert, F., Schulz, T., & Schläpfer, F. (2011). The role of landscape amenities in regional development: Evidence from Swiss municipality data. Land Use Policy, 28(4), 748-761. Waltert, F., & Schläpfer, F. (2010). Landscape amenities and local development: A review of migration, regional economic, and hedonic pricing studies. Ecological Economics, 70(2), 141-152. Warchalska-Troll, A. (2018). Natura 2000 sites in the Polish Carpathians vs local development: Inevitable conflict? Eco. Mont, 10(2). https://doi.org/10.1553/eco.mont-10-2s50 Warchalska-Troll, A. (2019). Do economic opportunities offered by national parks affect social perceptions of parks? A study from the Polish Carpathians. Mountain Research and Development, 39(1), R37-R46. West, P., Igoe, J., & Brockington, D. (2006). Parks and peoples: The social impact of protected areas. Annual Review of Anthropology, 35, 251-277. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123308 Yakusheva, N. (2019). Managing protected areas in Central Eastern Europe: Between path-dependence and Europeanisation. Land Use Policy, 87, 104036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2019.104036 Zawilińska, B., Brańka, P., Majewski, K., & Semczuk, M. (2021). National parks—Areas of economic development or stagnation? Evidence from Poland. Sustainability, 13(20), 11351. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011351