Chinese statistics: classification systems and data sources

Holz, Carsten A (2013): Chinese statistics: classification systems and data sources.

Abstract

China has become a popular geographic area of research. Researchers make extensive use of Chinese official statistics, but these statistics are often not well understood. This article first clarifies three major issues that affect a wide range of Chinese statistics—from output and employment data to industry profitability—and then elaborates on data sources. The three data issues are changes over time to the sectoral classification system, changes to the ownership classification system, and changes to the coverage of the industry sector. Many of these changes have gone unnoticed or remain poorly understood, leaving the researcher puzzled about varying labels, apparently inconsistent data, and discontinued time series. The second part of the paper offers a gateway to a wealth of Chinese statistics whose existence is not widely known. It also points out the limitations of some of these sources and provides an overview of the secondary literature that discusses the meaning and quality of particular Chinese statistics.

• Item Type: MPRA Paper
• Language: English
• Keywords: (all: China) national income accounting, national statistical system, China Standard Industrial Classification System, industrial statistics coverage, ownership classification system, national statistical data sources/limitations/explanations
• Subjects: R - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics > R1 - General Regional Economics; C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods > C8 - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology ; Computer Programs > C82 - Methodology for Collecting, Estimating, and Organizing Macroeconomic Data ; Data Access; P - Economic Systems > P2 - Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies > P27 - Performance and Prospects

References

Adams, F. Gerard, and CHEN Yimin. “Skepticism about Chinese GDP Growth – the Chinese GDP Elasticity of Energy Consumption.” Journal of Economic and Social Measurement 22, no. 4 (1996): 231-40.

Agricultural Census 1996. Zhongguo di yi ci nongye pucha ziliao zonghe tiyao (Comprehensive synopsis of China’s first agricultural census). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1998.

Agricultural Census 2006. Zhongguo di er ci quanguo nongye pucha ziliao zonghe tiyao (Comprehensive synopsis of China’s second national agricultural census). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2008.

Agriculture 1949-2004. Zhongguo nongye tongji ziliao huibian (Compendium of China’s Agricultural Statistical Material). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2006.

Bickers, Robert. “Purloined Letters: History and the Chinese Maritime Customs Service.” Modern Asian Studies 40, no. 3 (2006): 691-723.

Bramall, Chris. “The Quality of China’s Household Income Surveys.” The China Quarterly, no. 167 (Sept. 2001): 689-705.

Brandt, Loren, and Carsten A. Holz. “Spatial Price Differences in China: Estimates and Implications.” Economic Development and Cultural Change 55, no. 1 (Oct. 2006): 43-86.

CAI Fang. “The Consistency of China Statistics on Employment: Stylized Facts and Implications to Public Policies.” Chinese Economy 37, no. 5 (Sept.-Oct. 2004): 74-89.

CAI Yongshun. “Between State and Peasant: Local Cadres and Statistical Reporting in Rural China.” The China Quarterly, no. 163 (Sept. 2000): 783-805.

CAO Qingbo. “China’s Agricultural Data and Statistics System and the 1997 Agricultural Census.” In Agriculture in China and OECD Countries: Past Policies and Future Challenges, OECD Proceedings, Paris: OECD, 1999, pp. 214-23.

Chan, Kam Wing. “Chinese Census 2000: New Opportunities and Challenges.” The China Review 3, no. 2 (Fall 2003): 1-12.

_____. “Misconceptions and Complexities in the Study of China’s Cities: Definitions, Statistics, and Implications.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 48, no. 4 (July-Aug. 2007): 383-412.

Chan, Kam Wing, and Hu Ying. “Urbanization in the 1990s: New Definition, Different Series, and Revised Trends.” The China Review 3, no. 2 (Fall 2003): 49-71.

Chan, Kam Wing, and Wang, Man. “Remapping China's Regional Inequalities, 1990-2006: A New Assessment of de Facto and de Jure Population Data.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 49, no. 1 (Jan.-Feb. 2008): 21-56.

CHEN Kuan, Gary H. Jefferson, Thomas G. Rawski, WANG Hongchang and ZHENG Yuxin. “New Estimates of Fixed Investment and Capital Stock for Chinese State Industry.” The China Quarterly, no. 114 (June 1988): 243-66.

CHEN Shaohua, and Martin Ravallion. “Data in Transition: Assessing Rural Living Standards in Southern China.” China Economic Review 7, no. 1 (Spring 1996): 23-56.

Chow, Gregory C. “Chinese Statistics.” The American Statistician 40, no. 3 (1986): 191-6.

_____. “Capital Formation and Economic Growth in China.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 108, no. 3 (Aug. 1993): 809-42.

_____. “New Capital Estimates for China: Comments.” China Economic Review 17, no. 2 (2006a): 186-92.

_____. “Are Chinese Official Statistics Reliable?” CESifo Economic Studies 52, no. 2 (June 2006b): 396-414.

Coale, Ansley J. “A Further Note on Chinese Population Statistics.” Population and Development Review 7, no. 3 (Sept. 1981): 512-8.

DENG Liqun, MA Hong, and WU Heng. Dangdai zhongguo de tongji shiye (Statistics in current China). Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1990.

DING Sai, and John Knight. China’s Remarkable Economic Growth. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

Dougherty, Sean. “What’s in a Number: Worries about Reliability Plague All Who Use Chinese Statistics.” East Asian Executive Reports, September 15, 1997; also as “The Reliability of Chinese Statistics,” China Online, 1997.

Eberhard-Bréard, Andrea. “Robert Hart and China’s Statistical Revolution.” Modern Asian Studies 40, no. 3 (2006): 605-29.

Economic Census 2004. Zhongguo jingji pucha nianjian—2004 (China Economic Census Yearbook—2004). Four volumes. Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, (May) 2006.

Economic Census 2008. Zhongguo jingji pucha nianjian—2008 (China Economic Census Yearbook—2008). Five volumes. Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, (May) 2010.

Economics Dictionary: Statistics. Jingji da cijian tongjijuan (Big Economics Dictionary, Statistics Volume). Shanghai: Shanghai cishu chubanshe, 1996.

Fifty Years. Xin zhongguo wushi nian tongji ziliao huibian (Comprehensive statistical materials on 50 years of new China). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1999.

Fifty-five Years. Xin zhongguo wushiwu nian tongji ziliao huibian (Comprehensive statistical materials on 55 years of new China [1949-2004]). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2005.

GDP 1952-95. Zhongguo guonei shengchan zongzhi hesuan lishi ziliao 1952-1995 (Historical data on China’s gross domestic product 1952-1995). Dalian: Dongbei caijing daxue chubanshe, 1997.

GDP 1952-96. Zhongguo guonei shengchan zongzhi hesuan lishi ziliao (zhaiyao, 1952-1996) (Historical data on China’s gross domestic product (abstract, 1952-1996)). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1998.

GDP 1952-2004. Zhongguo guonei shengchan zongzhi hesuan lishi ziliao 1952-2004 (Historical data on China’s gross domestic product 1952-2004). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2007.

GDP 1996-2002. Zhongguo guonei shengchan zongzhi hesuan lishi ziliao 1996-2002 (Historical data on China’s gross domestic product 1996-2002). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2003.

Gibson, John, Huang Jikun, and Scott Rozelle. “Why Is Income Inequality So Low in China Compared to Other Countries? The Effect of Household Survey Methods.” Economics Letters 71, no. 3 (June 2001): 329-333.

Giles, John, Albert Park, and ZHANG Juwei. “What Is China’s True Unemployment Rate?” China Economic Review 16, no. 2 (2005): 149-70.

Goodkind, Daniel, and Loraine A. West. “China’s Floating Population: Definitions, Data and Recent Findings.” Urban Studies 39, no. 12 (Nov. 2002): 2237-50.

Herrmann-Pillath, Carsten, Daniel Kirchert and PAN Jiancheng. “Prefecture-level Statistics as a Source of Data for Research into China’s Regional Development.” The China Quarterly, no. 172 (Dec. 2002): 956-85.

Holz, Carsten. “Institutional Constraints on the Quality of Statistics in a Developing and Transitional Economy: the Case of China.” China Information 16, no. 1 (2002): 25-67.

_____. “‘Fast, Clear and Accurate:’ How Reliable Are Chinese Output and Economic Growth Statistics?” The China Quarterly, no. 173 (March 2003): 122-63.

_____. “Deconstructing China’s GDP Statistics.” China Economic Review 15, no. 2 (2004a): 164-202.

_____. “China’s Statistical System in Transition: Challenges, Data Problems, and Institutional Innovations.” Review of Income and Wealth 50, no. 3 (Sept. 2004b): 381-409.

_____. “The Institutional Arrangements for the Production of Statistics (OECD---China Governance Project).” OECD Statistics working paper, STD/DOC (2005a) 1, 19 Jan. 2005a. At: http://www.olis.oecd.org/olis/2005doc.nsf/43bb6130e5e86e5fc12569fa 005d004c/79bd1182713f436ec1256f8e0033ebb2/$FILE/JT00177141.PDF

_____. “The Quantity and Quality of Labor in China 1978-2000-2025.” Manuscript, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, May 2005b.

_____. “China’s Reform Period Economic Growth: How Reliable Are Angus Maddison’s Estimates? Review of Income and Wealth 52, no. 1 (March 2006a): 85-119.

_____. “China’s Reform Period Economic Growth: How Reliable Are Angus Maddison’s Estimates? Response to Angus Maddison’s Reply.” Review of Income and Wealth 52, no. 3 (Sept. 2006b): 471-5.

_____. “New Capital Estimates for China.” China Economic Review 17, no. 2 (2006c): 142-85. With appendices available at http://ihome.ust.hk/~socholz.

_____. “Response to Gregory C. Chow’s ‘New Capital Estimates for China: Comments.’ China Economic Review 17, no. 2 (2006d): 193-7.

_____. “China's 2004 Economic Census and 2006 Benchmark Revision of GDP Statistics: More Questions Than Answers.” The China Quarterly, no. 193 (Jan. 2008a): 150-63.

_____. “China’s Economic Growth 1978-2025: What We Know Today about China's Economic Growth Tomorrow.” World Development 36, no. 10 (Oct. 2008b): 1665-1691.

_____. “Measuring Productivity Change in China, 1952-2010.” Mimeo, Stanford Center for International Development, Stanford University, 2013.

Holz, Carsten A., and Yi-min Lin. “Pitfalls of China’s Industrial Statistics: Inconsistencies and Specification Problems.” The China Review 1, no. 1 (Fall 2001a): 29-71.

_____. “The 1997-1998 Break in Industrial Statistics: Facts and Appraisal.” China Economic Review 12, no. 4 (2001b): 303-16.

Hoshino, Masahi. “Measurement of GDP Per Capita and Regional Disparities in China, 1979-2009. Research Institute for Economics & Business Administration, Kobe University, Discussion Paper Series DP2011-17, 2011.

Hsueh Tien-tung, and LI Qiang. China's National Income, 1952-1995. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999.

HUANG Yasheng. “The Statistical Agency in China’s Bureaucratic System.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 29, no. 1 (March 1996): 59-75.

Huenemann, Ralph W. “Are China’s Recent Transport Statistics Plausible?” China Economic Review 12, no. 4 (2001): 368-72.

Industrial Census 1985. Zhonghua renmin gongheguo yi jiu ba wu nian gongye pucha ziliao (jianyaoben) (Materials of the 1985 PRC industrial census, summary volume). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1989.

Industrial Census 1995. Zhonghua renmin gongheguo 1995 nian quanguo gongye pucha ziliao (Materials of the 1995 PRC national industrial census). Three volumes. Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1997.

Industrial Yearbook. Zhongguo gongye jingji tongji nianjian (China Industrial Economy Statistical Yearbook). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, various years, starting 1988.

Industry, Transport, and Energy 50 Years. Zhongguo gongye jiaotong nengyuan 50 nian tongji ziliao huibian 1949-1999 (Compendium of 50 Years of Statistics on China’s Industry, Transport and Energy, 1949-1999). Compiled by the NBS Industry and Transport Statistics Division. Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2000.

Input-Output Table. Zhongguo touru chanchu biao (China Input-Output Table). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, various years.

Investment 1950-2000. Zhongguo guding zichan touzi tongji shudian 1950-2000 (China Investment in Fixed Asset Statistics 1950-2000). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2002.

Johnson, D. Gale. “Have the urban-rural disparities increased since 1978 in China?” 2001. Paper No. 01-05, Office of Agricultural Economics Research, University of Chicago. Published (in Chinese) in China Economic Quarterly 1, no. 3 (April 2002): 553-562.

Keidel, Albert. Keidel, Albert. “Practical Issues in Using the Chinese Statistical System.” China Perspectives, no. 33 (Jan./Feb. 2001a): 35-41.

_____. “China’s GDP Expenditure Accounts.” China Economic Review 12, no. 4 (2001b): 355-67.

Klein, Lawrence, and Suleyman Ozmucur. “The Estimation of China’s Economic Growth Rate.” Journal of Economic and Social Measurement 28, no. 4 (2002-2003):187-202.

Knight, John, and XUE Jinjun. “How High Is Urban Unemployment in China?” Journal of Chinese Economic and Business Studies 4, no. 2 (July 2006): 91-107.

Lardy, Nicholas. “Evaluating Economic Indicators in Post-WTO China.” Issues and Studies 38/39, no. 4/38-1/39 (Dec. 2002/March 2003): 249-68.

Li Choh-Ming. The Statistical System of Communist China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962.

LI Deshui. “Guanyu GDP de ji dian sikao” (Some considerations on GDP). Jingji yanjiu, no. 4 (2004): 26-8.

LI Huicun and MO Yueda. Zhongguo tongji shi (History of Chinese statistics). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1993.

LI Mei and HE Jianfeng. “Nongcun zhuhu diaocha gongzuo de jidian tihui” (Some experiences in rural household survey work). Zhongguo tongji, no. 8/2009 (August 2009): 33f.

LI Shuzhuo, Zhang Yexia, and Marcus W. Feldman. “Birth Registration in China: Practices, Problems and Policies.” Population Research and Policy Review 29, no. 3 (June 2010): 297-317.

LIU Chengxiang, LIU Ke, JIN Zhaofeng. Ruhe shiyong tongji nianjian (How to use the Statistical Yearbook). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2000.

LIU Ta and Chan Kam Wing. “National Statistics on Internal Migration in China.” China Information 15, no. 2 (2001): 75-113.

Logan, Jeffrey. “Diverging Energy and Economic Growth in China: Where Has All the Coal Gone.” Pacific and Asian Journal of Energy 11, no. 1 (June 2001): 1-13.

Lyons, Thomas P. China Maritime Customs and China’s Trade Statistics 1859-1948. Trumansburg, NY: Willow Creek Press, 2003.

Maddison, Angus. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Paris: Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 1998.

_____. “Do Official Statistics Exaggerate China’s GDP Growth? A Reply to Carsten Holz.” Review of Income and Wealth 52, no. 1 (March 2006): 121-6.

Matsuda, Yoshiro. “Methods of Compiling Crop Statistics in China.” The Developing Economies 3, no. 3 (Sept. 1965): 323-42.

_____. “Survey Systems and Sampling Designs of Chinese Household Surveys, 1952-87.” The Developing Economies 28, no. 3 (Sept. 1990): 329-52.

Mehrotra, Aaron, and Jenni Pääkkönen. “Comparing China’s GDP Statistics with Coincident Indicators.” Journal of Comparative Economics 39, no. 3 (Sept. 2011): 406-11.

MENG Lian and WANG Xiaolu. “Dui zhongguo jingji zengzhang tongji shuju kexindu de guji” (An evaluation of the reliability of China’s statistics on economic growth). Jingji yanjiu, no. 10 (Oct. 2000): 3-13.

Movshuk, Oleksandr. “The Reliability of China’s Growth Figures: A Survey of Recent Statistical Controversies.” The Journal of Econometric Study of Northeast Asia 4, no. 1 (2002): 31-45.

Moosa, Imad A. “Does the Chinese Official CPI Underestimate Inflation?” Applied Economics Letters 4, no. 5 (May 1997): 301-4.

NBS. National Bureau of Statistics. 1988. Tongji zhidu fangfa wenjian xuanbian 1950-1987 (Selected methods and documents on the statistical system 1950-1987). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1988.

30 Sept. 1990. “1990 nian gongye chanpin bubian jiage” (1990 constant prices of industrial products). In NBS (1995), pp. 768-72.

1992. Tongji gongzuo zhongyao wenjian xuanbian 1988-1990 (Selected important documents on statistical work 1988-1990). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1992.

1995. Tongji zhidu fangfa wenjian xuanbian 1987-1993 (Selected documents on the methods of the statistical system 1987-1993). Beijing, Guojia tongjiju tongji sheji guanlisi (Design and Administration Department of the NBS), no specific publisher, 1995.

1996. Tongji gongzuo zhongyao wenjian xuanbian 1991-1995 (Selected important documents on statistical work 1991-1995). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1996.

1997. Zhongguo niandu guonei shengchan zongzhi jisuan fangfa (Calculation method of China’s annual gross domestic product). NBS National Income Accounts Division. Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe. (This is one of seven small volumes explaining compilation practices of different NIPA statistics in China.)

2003. Guojia tongji diaocha zhidu (State statistical survey system). No publisher given.

14 May 2003. “Sanci chanye huafen guiding” (Stipulation on the three-sector classification); based on the “Guomin jingji hangye fenlei” (Sectoral classification of the national economy), GB/T4754-2002. In China Infobank.

2004. Tongji gongzuo zhongyao wenjian xuanbian 2001-2003 (Selection of important documents on statistical work 2001-2003). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2004.

2007. Zhongguo jingji pucha niandu guonei shengchan zongzhi hesuan fangfa (Calculation method of China’s annual gross domestic product from China’s economic census). NBS National Income Accounts Division. Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2007.

2008. Guomin jingji hangye fenlei zhushi (Explanatory notes on the [2002] sectoral classification system). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2008.

2011. Guomin jingji hangye fenlei zhushi 2011(Explanatory notes on the 20011 sectoral classification system). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2011.

NBS Industry and Transport Division. “Gongye zengzhang sudu zhong de ‘shuifen’ you duoda?” (How big is the ‘water content’ in industrial growth?), Jingji yanjiu cankao ziliao, no. 42 (19 March 1989): 2-5.

_____. Xinbian gongye tongji gongzuo zhinan (New guide to industrial statistics). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1999.

_____. Gongye hangye yu chanpin huafen gongzuo shouce (Handbook on classification of industrial sectors and products). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2003.

Nickum, James E. Dam Lies and Other Statistics: Taking the Measure of Irrigation in China, 1931-91. East-West Center Occasional Papers, Environment Series, no. 18, January 1995.

Odgaard, Ole. “Inadequate and Inaccurate Chinese Statistics: the Case of Private Rural Enterprises.” China Information 5, no. 3 (Winter 1990-1991): 29-38.

OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). National Accounts for China: Sources and Methods. Paris: OECD Publications, 2000.

Orlik, Tom. Understanding China’s Economic Indicators: Translating the Data into Investment Opportunities. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: FT Press Science, 2012.

PAN Zhenwen, and AN Yuli. “Yi wan yi de chaju cong he er lai: dui guojiaji, shengji hesuan shuju chaju de sikao” (Where is the one-trillion difference from? Some thoughts on the difference between national and provincial accounts data). Zhongguo tongji, no. 11 (Nov. 2003): 8f.

Park, Albert, and WANG Sangui. “China’s Poverty Statistics.” China Economic Review 12, no. 4 (2001): 384-98.

Perkins, Dwight H. Market Control and Planning in Communist China. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press: 1966. Appendix A: Reliability of Chinese Statistics (pp. 215-25).

Population Census 1982. Zhongguo 1982 nian renkou pucha ziliao (Tabulation of the 1982 Population Census of China). Compiled by the State Council Population Census Office and the NBS Population Division. Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1985.

Population Census 1990. Zhongguo 1990 nian renkou pucha ziliao (Tabulation of the 1990 Population Census of China). Compiled by the State Council Population Census Office and the NBS Population Division. Four volumes. Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1993.

Population Census 2000. Zhongguo 2000 nian renkou pucha ziliao (Tabulation of the 2000 Population Census of China). Compiled by the State Council Population Census Office and the NBS Population, Society, and Technology Division. Three volumes. Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2002.

Population Statistics 1949-1985. Zhonghua renmin gongheguo renkou tongji ziliao huibian (PRC Population Statistics Compendium 1949-1985). By the NBS Division for Population Statistics and the Public Security’s Division 3. Beijing: Zhongguo caizheng jingji chubanshe, 1988.

Population Survey 1987. Zhongguo 1987 nian 1% renkou chouyang diaocha ziliao. (Tabulation of the 1987 1% Population Sample Survey of the People’s Republic of China). Compiled by the NBS Population Division. Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1988.

Population Survey 1995. Zhongguo 1995 nian 1% renkou chouyang diaocha ziliao. (National Tabulation of the 1995 1% Population Sample Survey). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2005.

Population Survey 2005. 1995 nian quanguo 1% renkou chouyang diaocha ziliao. (Tabulation of the 1995 1% Population Sample Survey of the People’s Republic of China). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1997.

Ravallion, Martin, and CHEN Shaohua. “When Economic Reform Is Faster Than Statistical Reform: Measuring and Explaining Income Inequality in Rural China.” Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 61, no. 1 (Feb. 1999): 33-56.

Rawski, Thomas G. “On the reliability of Chinese economic data: discussion.” Journal of Development Studies 12, no. 4 (1976): 438-41. ¬¬¬¬ _____. “China by the Numbers: How Reform Has Affected China’s Economic Statistics.” China Perspectives, no. 33 (Jan./Feb. 2001a): 25-34. ¬¬¬¬ _____. “What Is Happening to China’s GDP Statistics?” China Economic Review 12, no. 4 (2001b): 347-54. ¬¬¬¬ _____. “Where Will the Jobs Come From?” China Economic Quarterly 6, no. 4 (2002a): 39-43.

_____. “Measuring China’s Recent GDP Growth: Where Do We Stand.” Manuscript, 29 August 2002(b), at http://www.pitt.edu/~tgrawski/papers2002/.

Rawski, Thomas G., and Robert W. Mead. “On the Trail of China’s Phantom Farmers.” World Development 26, no. 5 (May 1998): 767-81.

Rawski, Thomas G., and XIAO Wei. “China Economic Review Symposium on Chinese Economic Statistics: Introduction.” China Economic Review 12, no. 4 (2001): 298-302.

Scharping, Thomas. “Hide-and-Seek: China’s Elusive Population Data.” China Economic Review 12, no. 4 (2001): 323-32.

_____. Birth Control in China 1949-2000: Population Policy and Demographic Development. (With an “Epilogue: The Population Census of November 2000.”) London and New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.

_____. “Chinese Fertility Trends in the Last Twenty Years: A Comparative Analysis of Birth Numbers and School Data.” In Census Office Under the State Council (ed.), 2000 Population Census of China - Proceedings of International Seminar, Beijing, 2005a, pp. 183-199.

_____. “Tight Policies, Loose Numbers: Problems of Census and Population Statistics.” Manuscript, 2005b.

_____. Birth Control in China 1949-2000: Population Policy and Demographic Development. London/New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005c.

Seventeen Years. Gaige kaifang shiqi nian de zhongguo diqu jingji (China’s Regional Economy in Seventeen Years of Reform and Opening). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1996.

SHI Zhenhua. “Shiye tongji fangfa de queshi yu wanshan” (Shortcomings of the method for calculating unemployment statistics, and improvements). Zhongguo tongji, no. 4/2009 (April 2009): 53f.

Sinha, R. P. “Chinese Agriculture: A Quantitative Look.” Journal of Development Studies 11, no. 3 (1975): 202-23.

Sinton, Jonathan E. “Accuracy and Reliability of China’s Energy Statistics.” China Economic Review 12, no. 4 (2001): 373-83.

Sinton, Jonathan E., and David G. Fridley. “What Goes Up: Recent Trends in China’s Energy Consumption.” Energy Policy 28, no. 10 (2000): 671-87.

_____. “A Guide to China’s Energy Statistics.” The Journal of Energy Literature 8, no. 1 (2002): 22-35.

Sixty Years. Xin zhongguo liushi nian tongji ziliao huibian (Comprehensive atatistical materials on 60 years of the New China [1949-2008]). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2010.

Smil, Vaclav. “China’s Agricultural Land.” The China Quarterly, no. 158 (June 1999): 414-429.

Solinger, Dorothy J. “Why We Cannot Count the ‘Unemployed’.” The China Quarterly, no. 167 (Sept. 2001): 671-88.

_____. “The View from Wuhan: China’s Uncountable Unemployed.” China Economic Quarterly 6, no. 4 (2002): 34-9.

SONG Xiaochuan. “Zhongguo de GDP ji qi tuogan tongji wenti” (China’s GDP and its various problems). Jingji yanjiu, no. 8/2007 (Aug. 2007): 21-30.

Statistical Bulletin. Zhonghua renmin gongheguo XX nian guomin jingji he shehui fazhan tongji gongbao (PRC statistical bulletin on the economic and social development of the year XX). Issued by the NBS and available at http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/ (accessed on 28 April 2006).

Statistical Work Yearbook. Zhongguo tongji gongzuo nianjian (China Statistical Work Yearbook). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, various years.

Statistical Yearbook. Zhongguo tongji nianjian (China Statistical Yearbook). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, various years starting with the 1981 issue (1981 in the title), and since published annually, with the second issue labeled “1983.”

Statistics Manual. Zhongguo jingji tongji shiyong daquan (Practical manual on economic statistics of China). Beijing: Zhongguo renmin daxue chubanshe, 1990.

TANG Wenfang. “An Introduction to Survey Research in Urban China.” Issues & Studies 38, no. 4, and vol. 39, no. 1 (Dec. 2002/ March 2003): 269-88.

Tertiary Sector Census 1993. Zhongguo shouci di san chanye pucha ziliao: 1991~1992 (Materials on China’s first tertiary sector census: 1991-1992). Four volumes (with continuing page numbers). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1995.

Travers, S. Lee. “Bias in Chinese Economic Statistics: The Case of the Typical Example Investigation.” The China Quarterly, no. 91 (Sept. 1982): 478-85.

Vermeer, Eduard B. “Chinese Economic Data: How Much and How Good.” China Information 1, no. 2 (Aug. 1986): 49-54.

Walker, Kenneth R. “Interpreting Chinese Grain Consumptin Statistics.” The China Quarterly, no. 92 (Dec. 1982): 575-88.

WANG Xiaolu, and MENG Lian. “A Reevaluation of China’s Economic Growth.” China Economic Review 12, no. 4 (2001): 338-46.

Wiemer, Calla, and TIAN Xiuhua. “The Measurement of Small-Scale Industry for China’s GDP Accounts.” China Economic Review 12, no. 4 (2001): 317-22.

World Bank. China: Strategies for Reducing Poverty in the 1990s. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1992.

Wu, Friedrich. “Chinese Economic Statistics—Caveat Emptor!” Post-Communist Economies 15, no. 1 (March 2003): 127-45.

Wu, Harry X. “The Real Chinese Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for the Pre-Reform Period 1952-77.” Review of Income and Wealth 39, no. 1 (March 1993): 63-87.

_____. “China’s GDP Level and Growth Performance: Alternative Estimates and the Implications.” Review of Income and Wealth 46, no. 4 (Dec. 2000): 475-99.

_____. “How Fast Has Chinese Industry Grown?—Measuring the Real Output of Chinese Industry, 1949-97.” Review of Income and Wealth 48, no. 2 (June 2002): 179-204.

_____. “The Chinese GDP Growth Rate Puzzle: How Fast Has the Chinese Economy Grown?” Asian Economic Papers 6, no. 1 (Winter 2007): 1-23.

XU Xianchun. “Zhongguo jingji zengzhang jiujing shi duoshao?” (How high is China’s economic growth rate actually?) Guoqing guoli luntan, no. 2 (February 1999a): 10-12.

_____. “Shijie yinhang gaogu zhongguo GDP shuju” (The World Bank overestimates China’s GDP). Zhongguo guoqing guoli, no. 1 (1999b): 7-10.

_____. “Shijie yinhang dui zhongguo guanfang GDP shuju de tiaozheng he chongxin renke” (The official Chinese GDP figures as adjusted and approved by the World Bank). Jingji yanjiu, no. 6 (June 1999c): 52-8.

_____. “Zhongguo guonei shengchan zongzhi hesuan zhong cunzai de ruogan wenti yanjiu” (Some problems in the calculation of China’s GDP). Jingji yanjiu, no. 2 (Feb. 2000a): 10-16. ¬ _____. Zhongguo guonei shengchan zongzhi hesuan (Calculation of China’s GDP). Beijing: Beijing daxue chubanshe, 2000(b).

_____. “Woguo GDP hesuan yu xianxing SNA de GDP hesuan zhijian de ruogan chayi” (Some discrepancies in China’s GDP compilation in comparison to the current SNA GDP compilation methods). Jingji yanjiu, no. 11 (Nov. 2001): 63-8.

_____. “Study on Some Problems in Estimating China’s Gross Domestic Product.” Review of Income and Wealth 48, no. 2 (June 2002): 205-15.

_____. Zhongguo guomin jingji hesuan yu hongguan jingji wenti yanjiu (Research into China’s national income accounting and issues of macroeconomics). Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 2003. (Incorporates much of the earlier journal publications)

_____. “China’s Gross Domestic Product Estimation.” China Economic Review 15, no. 3 (2004): 302-22.

_____. “Guanyu jingji pucha niandu GDP hesuan de bianhua” (Changes in the calculation of annual GDP in the economic census). Jingji yanjiu, no. 2 (February), 2006: 16-20.

_____. “The Establishment, Reform, and Development of China’s System of National Accounts.” Review of Income and Wealth 55, special issue 1 (July 2009): 442-65.

XU Xianchun and TIAN Xiaoqing. “Zhongguo guonei shengchan zongzhi lishi shuju (1952-1977 nian) de ziliao shouji he cesuan fangfa” (Compilation and estimation of data used in establishing China’s GDP (1952-1977)). Jingji yanjiu, no. 9 (Sept. 1997): 65-71.

Xue, Susan. “China’s Statistical System and Resources.” Journal of Government Information 30, no. 1 (2004): 87-109.

YUE Ximing and ZHANG Shuguang. “Woguo fuwuye zengjiazhi de hesuan wenti” (Problems in the calculation of the value-added of services in China). Jingji yanjiu, no. 12 (2002): 51-9.

ZHENG Jiaxiang. Zhongguo tongji shiwu (Chinese statistics). Beijing: Bejing gongye daxue chubanshe, 1994.

ZHENG Jingping. “China’s Official Statistics: Growing with Full Vitality.” China Economic Review 12, no. 4 (2001): 333-7.

ZHOU Yixing, and Laurence J. C. Ma. “China’s Urban Population Statistics: A Critical Evaluation.” Eurasian Geography and Economics 46, no. 4 (June 2005): 272-89.