Switching from Job Seekers to Job Creators: Transmogrifying Necessity Entrepreneurs and Ratifying Opportunity Entrepreneurs in Zimbabwe

Nyoni, Thabani (2018): Switching from Job Seekers to Job Creators: Transmogrifying Necessity Entrepreneurs and Ratifying Opportunity Entrepreneurs in Zimbabwe.

Abstract

Zimbabwe is open for business. Indeed, after a period of over three decades of self – inflicted economic stagnation; Zimbabwe is finally open for business! This is a meritorious development in the history of this country. The limitation to a new Zimbabwe, the new Zimbabwe that we all desire; is the serious lack of entrepreneurs, opportunity – based entrepreneurs. Without opportunity entrepreneurs, the unemployment puzzle in Zimbabwe is likely to remain unsolved. Opportunity entrepreneurs have the capacity to solve the unemployment problem, especially considering the fact that Zimbabwe is a beautiful country characterized by many business opportunities. It’s high time we must switch from seeking jobs to creating jobs. While there are a number of entrepreneurs in Zimbabwe, it is not surprising that their contribution to economic growth remains minimal because the bulk of them are necessity instead of opportunity entrepreneurs. For the economy of Zimbabwe to grow in a sustainable manner, there is need to transmogrify necessity entrepreneurs into opportunity entrepreneurs. The time to do away with the job seeking mentality is now! Zimbabwe is open for business; indeed, Zimbabwe is open for job creators. This paper looks at entrepreneurship, but from an interesting point of view: opportunity – based entrepreneurship view. I systematically make it clear why policy makers in Zimbabwe need to prioritize opportunity entrepreneurs as opposed to necessity entrepreneurs. Policy implications from this analysis are envisioned to assist policy makers in light of enhancing entrepreneurship, promoting sustainable economic growth and fostering job creation in the new Zimbabwe.

• Item Type: MPRA Paper
• Language: English
• Keywords: Entrepreneurs, Entrepreneurship, Job creation, Necessity - based entrepreneurship, Opportunity - based entrepreneurship
• Subjects: L - Industrial Organization > L2 - Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior > L26 - Entrepreneurship

References

[1] Acs, Z. J & Amoros, J. E (2008). Entrepreneurship and competitiveness dynamics in Latin America, Small Business Economics, 31 (3): 305 – 322. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11187-008-9133-y

[2] Acs, Z. J (2006). How is entrepreneurship good for economic growth? Innovations, 1 (1): 97 – 107. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11187-006-9012-3

[3] Africa Commission (2009). Realizing the potential of Africa’s youth, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, Copenhagen. http://r.search.yahoo.com/_ylt=AwrEwNg8wo9bb.kA1acPxQt

[4] Aidis, R., Welter, F., Smallbone, D & Isakova, N (2006). Female entrepreneurship in transition economies: the case of Lithuania and Ukraine, Feminist Economics, 12 (3/4): 82 – 101. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13545700601184831

[5] Amit, R., Muller, E & Cockburn, I (1995). Opportunity costs and entrepreneurial activity, Journal of Business Venturing, 10 (1995): 93 – 179. https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/journal-of-business-venturing/vol/10/issue/2

[6] Anderson, A. R & Starnawska, M (2008). Research practices in entrepreneurship: problems of definition, description and meaning, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 9 (4): 221 – 230. https://openair.rgu.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/10059/674/Anderson%20IJEI%202008%20Research.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

[7] Andersson, P & Wadensjo, E (2007). Do the unemployed become successful entrepreneurs? A comparison between the unemployed, inactive and wage – earners, International Journal of Manpower, 28 (2007): 604 – 626. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/46545678

[8] Anokhin, S & Wincent, J (2012). Start – up rates and innovation: a cross – country examination, Journal of International Business Studies, 43 (1): 41 – 60. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227470312

[9] Audretsch, D. B & Fritsch, M (1999). The industry component of new firm formation processes, Review of Industrial Organisation, 15 (3): 239 – 252. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1007722415439

[10] Banerjee, A. V & Duflo, E (2007). The economic lives of the poor, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21 (1): 141 – 167. http://dx.doi.org/10.125/jep.21.1.141

[11] Birley, S & Westhead, P (1994). A taxonomy of business start – up reasons and their impact on firm growth and size, Journal of Business Venturing, 9 (1994): 7 – 31. https://doi.org/10.1016/0883-9026(94)90024-8

[12] Blanchflower, D & Meyer, B (1994). A longitudinal analysis of young entrepreneurs in Australia and the United States, Small Business Economics, 6 (1): 1 – 20. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01066108

[13] Blau, D. M (1987). A time series analysis of self employment in the United States, Journal of Political Economy, 95 (3): 445 – 467. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/261466

[14] Block, J & Sandner, P (2009). Necessity and opportunity entrepreneurs and their duration in self employment: evidence from German micro data, Journal of Industry, Competition and Trade, 9 (2): 117 – 137. https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:kap:jincot:v:9:y:2009:i:2:p:117-137

[15] Bosma, N & Harding, R (2007). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: GEM 2006 Results, London Business School, London. https://entreprenorskapsforum.se/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/GEM-Global-Report_2006.pdf

[16] Bosma, N., Jones, K., Autio, K & Levie, J (2008). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 2007 executive report, Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, London.

[17] Bridge, S., O’Neill, K & Cromie, S (2003). Understanding enterprise, entrepreneurship and small business, Palgrave McMillan, Basingstoke. https://www.amazon.co.uk/Understanding-Enterprise-Entrepreneurship-Small-Business/dp/0230552706

[18] Caliendo, M & Kritikos, A (2010). Start – ups by the unemployed: characteristics, survival and direct employment effects, Small Business Economics, 35 (1): 71 – 92. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11187-009-9208-4

[19] Carrasco, R (1999). Transitions to and from self – employment in Spain: An empirical analysis, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 61 (3): 315 – 341. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/4744545

[20] Cheung, O. L (2013). Are we seeing “necessity” or “opportunity” entrepreneurs at large? Research in Business and Economics Journal. http://www.aabri.com/rbej.html

[21] Chidoko, C (2013). An economic analysis of the determinants of entrepreneurship: the case of Masvingo informal businesses, Russian Journal of Agricultural and Socio – Economic Sciences, 3 (15): 17 – 21. http://www.gzu.ac.zw/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/commerce.pdf

[22] Chidoko, C., Makuyana, G., Matungamire, P & Bemani, J (2011). Impact of informal sector on the current Zimbabwean economic environment, International Journal of Economics and Research, 2 (6): 26 – 28. http://ijeronline.com/documents/volumes/Vol%202%20issue%206/ijer20110206ND(3).pdf

[23] Chigunta, F., Schnurr, J., James – Wilson, D & Torres, V (2005). Being real about youth entrepreneurship in eastern and southern Africa, SEED – Working Paper No. 72, International Labor Organisation, Geneva.

[24] Chigwenya, A & Mudzengerere, F. H (2013). The small and medium enterprises in Zimbabwe: a narrative of strides taken to mainstream the informal sector activities in local authorities in Zimbabwe, International Journal of Politics and Good Governance, 4 (4): 1 – 18. http://onlineresearchjournals.com/ijopagg/art/139.pdf

[25] Chivasa, S (2014). Entrepreneurship culture among SMEs in Zimbabwe: a case of Bulawayo SMEs, International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management, II (9): 1 – 13. http://www.ijecm.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/2921.pdf

[26] Clark, K & Drinkwater, S (2000). Pushed out or pulled in? Self – employed among ethnic minorities in England and Wales, Labor Economics, 7 (2000): 603 – 628. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Pushed-out-or-pulled-in-%3F-Self-employment-among-in-Clark-Drinkwater/60827ce845f49d2c8955c16445c2c831be02d79b

[27] Cullen, J. B., Johnson, J. L & Parboteeah, K. P (2014). National rates of opportunity entrepreneurship activity: insights from institutional anomie theory? Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38 (4): 775 – 806. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/etap.12018#references-section

[28] Dabale, P. W & Masese, T (2014). The influence of entrepreneurship education on beliefs, attitudes and intention: a cross – sectional study of Africa University graduates, European Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 3 (9): 1 – 13. http://www.ejbss.com/Data/Sites/1/vol3no09december2015/ejbss-1490-14-theinfluenceofentrepreneurship.pdf

[29] Deli, F (2011). Opportunity and necessity entrepreneurship: local unemployment and the small firm effect, Journal of Management Policy and Practice, 12 (4): 38 – 57.

[30] Desai, S (2011). Measuring entrepreneurship in developing countries. In W. Naude (ed), Entrepreneurship and Economic Development (75 – 94), Macmillan, Palgrave.

[31] Ernst & Young (2009). Entrepreneurship and Innovation: The keys to global economic recovery, White Paper Report, Ernst & Young. https://news.gcase.org/2009/06/16/ernst-young-report-on-entrepreneurship/

[32] Evans, D. S & Leighton, L. S (1989). The determinants of changes in US self employment – 1968 – 1987, Small Business Economics, 1 (2): 111 – 120. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF00398629

[33] Evans, L & Leighton, L (1990). Small business formation by unemployed and employed workers, Small Business Economics, 2 (1990): 319 – 330. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00401628

[34] Fairlie, R. W & Fossen, F. M (2017). Opportunity versus Necessity entrepreneurship: two components of business creation, Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (SIPR), Stanford. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3169864

[35] Frese, M & de Kruif, M (2000). Psychological success factors of entrepreneurship in Africa, a selective literature review. In Frese, M (ed) – Success and Failure of Microbusiness Owners in Africa: A psychological approach, Quorum Books, London.

[36] Fritsch, M & Mueller, P (2004). Effects of new business formation on regional development over time, Regional Studies, 38 (8): 961 – 975. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0034340042000280965

[37] Garcia, H & Fares, J (2008). Youth in Africa’s labor market, World Bank, Washington DC. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/687001468007775569/Youth-in-Africas-labor-market

[38] Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) (2007). Report on Women’s Entrepreneurship, Kansas City. https://www.academia.edu/19349466/Global_Entrepreneurship_Monitor_United_Kingdom_2007_Executive_Report

[39] Government of Zimbabwe (2018). Investment guidelines and opportunities in Zimbabwe, GoZ. http://ihale.tobb.org.tr/dosya/3685_Zimbabve_yatirim_firsatlari.pdf

[40] Gries, T & Naude, W (2010). Entrepreneurship and structural economic transformation, Small Business Economics, 34 (2010): 13 – 29. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11187-009-9192-8

[41] Gries, T & Naude, W (2011). Entrepreneurship and human development: a capability approach, Journal of Public Economics, 95 (3/4): 216 – 224. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047272710001684

[42] Hamilton, B (2009). Does entrepreneurship pay? An empirical analysis of the returns to self – employment, Journal of Political Economy, 108 (3): 604 – 631. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24104134

[43] Harding, R., Brooksbank, D., Hart, M., Jones – Evans, D., Levie, J., O’Reilly, J & Walker, J (2006). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, London Business School, London.

[44] Hechavarria, D. M & Reynolds, P. D (2009). Cultural norms and business start – ups: the impact of national values on opportunity and necessity entrepreneurs, The International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 5 (4): 417 – 437. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225631174

[45] Kayne, J (1999). State entrepreneurship policies and programs, Kauffman Center for Entrepreneurial Leadership, Kansas City. http://www.unm.edu/~asalazar/Kauffman/Entrep_research/e_state.pdf

[46] Kritikos, A. S (2014). Entrepreneurs and their impact on jobs and economic growth, IZA World of Labor, http://dx.doi.org/10.15185/izawol.8

[47] Langevang, T & Gough, K (2012). Diverging pathways: young female employment and entrepreneurship in Sub – Sahara Africa, The Geographical Journal, 178 (2012): 242 – 252.

[48] Langevang, T., Namatovu, R & Dawa, S (2012). Beyond necessity and opportunity entrepreneurship: motivations and aspirations of young entrepreneurs in Uganda, International Development Planning Review, 34 (4): 439 – 459. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270079577

[49] Majoni, T., Matunhu, J & Chaderopa, B (2016). SME policies and challenges: a comparative analysis of Zimbabwe and South Korea, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 6 (6): 377 – 384. http://www.ijsrp.org/research-paper-0616/ijsrp-p5452.pdf

[50] Margolis, D. N (2014). By choice and by necessity: entrepreneurship and self – employment in the developing world, European Journal of Development Research, 26 (4): 419 – 436. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2490955

[51] Maritz, A (2004). New Zealand necessity entrepreneurs, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 1 (2004): 255 – 264. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247833000

[52] Masunda, T (2006). The determinants of latent entrepreneurship in Japan, Small Business Economics, 26 (2006): 227 – 240. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1503281

[53] Mazhambe, A. K (2017). Assessment of the contribution of street vending to the Zimbabwe economy: a case of street vendors in Harare CBD, IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR – JBM), 19 (9): 91 – 100. http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jbm/papers/Vol19-issue9/Version-1/J19090191100.pdf

[54] McClelland, D (1961). The achievement motive in economic growth, American Economic Review, 51 (1961): 179 – 189.

[55] McMullen, J. S., Bagby, D. R & Palich, L. E (2008). Economic freedom and the motivation to engage in entrepreneurial action, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 32 (5): 875 – 895. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2008.00260.x

[56] Minniti, M & Arenius, P (2003). Women Entrepreneurship, United Nations.

[57] Minniti, M., Bygrave, W & Autio, E (2006). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 2005 executive report, London Business School, London.

[58] Mukorera, S & Mahadea, D (2014). Linking entrepreneurial activity to economic meltdown in Zimbabwe, 5 (3): 42 – 50, http://dx.doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n3p42

[59] Munangagwa, C. L (2009). The Economic Decline of Zimbabwe, Gettysburg Economic Review, 3 (9): 01 – 22. https://cupola.gettysburg.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=ger

[60] Munyoro, G., Chaibva, M., Langton, I & Chenyika, W (2017). The role of entrepreneurship in sustaining Non – Governmental Organizations’ operations in Zimbabwe: a case study of Harare, International Journal of Research in Business Management, 5 (11): 131 – 152. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322026482

[61] Munyoro, G., Chikombingo, M & Nyandoro, Z (2016). The motives of Zimbabwean entrepreneurs: a case study of Harare, Asian Development and Resources Research Institute (ADRRI) Journal, 25 (7): 1 – 21. https://www.academia.edu/25772783/The_Motives_of_Zimbabwean_Entrepreneurs_A_Case_Study_of_Harare

[62] Naude, W (2011). Entrepreneurship is not a binding constraint on growth and development in the poorest countries, World Development, 39 (2011): 33 – 44. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222576581

[63] Ndiweni, E & Verhoeven, H. A. L (2013). The rise of informal entrepreneurs in Zimbabwe: evidence of economic growth or failure of economic policies? African Journal of Accounting, Auditing and Finance, X (Y): xxxx, Herriot – Watt University Research Gateway, http://dx.doi.org/1504/AJAAF.2013.057636

[64] Ndiweni, N. J., Mashonganyika, S., Ncube, N & Dube, N (2014). Informal economy as a source of livelihood in Zimbabwean urban areas: the case of Bulawayo Metropolitan, International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 4 (1): 1 – 8. http://www.ijsrp.org/research-paper-0114/ijsrp-p25112.pdf

[65] Nicolaou, N & Shane, S (2009). Can genetic factors influence the likelihood of engaging in entrepreneurial activity? Journal of Business Venturing, 24 (2009): 1 – 22. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222423915

[66] Njaya, T & Murungwa, S. I (2016). Why do female street vendors earn less than male street vendors in Harare? International Journal of Business and Management Invention, 5 (11): 23 – 27. http://www.ijbmi.org/papers/Vol(5)11/version-3/C051103023027.pdf

[67] Njaya, T (2014a). Operations of street food vendors and their impact on sustainable urban life in high density suburbs of Harare, in Zimbabwe, Asian Journal of Economic Modeling, 2 (1): 18 – 31. http://aessweb.com/pdf-files/Ajem-2014-2(1)-18-31.pdf

[68] Njaya, T (2014b). Employment creation or sheer survival: case of street vendors of Harare Metropolitan in Zimbabwe, Global Journal of Advanced Research, 1 (2): 264 – 274. https://www.scribd.com/document/254698112/Employment-Creation-or-Sheer-Survival-Case-of-Street-Vendors-of-Harare-Metropolitan-in-Zimbabwe

[69] Njaya, T (2014c). Coping with informality and illegality: the case of street entrepreneurs of Harare Metropolitan, Zimbabwe, Asian Journal of Modeling, 2 (2): 93 – 102. http://www.aessweb.com/pdf-files/ajem-2014-2(2)-93-102.pdf

[70] Njaya, T (2014d). Nature, operations and socio – economic features of street food vendors of Harare, Zimbabwe, IOSR Journal of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR – JHSS), 19 (4): 49 – 58. http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jhss/papers/Vol19-issue4/Version-3/H019434958.pdf

[71] Njaya, T (2015a). Informal sector, panacea to the high unemployment in Zimbabwe? case of informal sector enterprises of Harare Metropolitan, International Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Studies, 2 (2): 97 – 106. http://ijrhss.org/pdf/v2-i2/14.pdf

[72] Njaya, T (2015b). Strategies for daily survival: the role of social capital among street vendors of Harare Metropolitan, IOSR Journal of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR – JHSS), 20 (7): 98 – 105. http://www.lis.zou.ac.zw:8080/dspace/bitstream/0/204/1/O0207298105-IOSR-%20Social%20capital%20of%20street%20vendors.PDF

[73] Nyanga, T (2013). Challenges faced by young entrepreneurs at Mandava Market in Zvishavane, Zimbabwe, International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 2 (2): 113 – 117. https://www.scribd.com/document/132624895/Challenges-Faced-by-Young-Enterpreneurs-at-Mandava-Market-in-Zvishavane-Zimbabwe

[74] Nyathi, K. A., Nyoni T., Nyoni M & Bonga W. G (2018). The Role of Accounting Information in the Success of Small & Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in Zimbabwe: A Case of Harare, DRJ – Journal of Business and Management, 1 (1): 01 – 15. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322821029

[75] Nyoni T & Bonga W. G (2018b). Anatomy of the Small & Medium Enterprises (SMEs) Critical Success Factors (CSFs) in Zimbabwe: Introducing the 3E Model, DRJ – Journal of Business and Management, 1 (2): 01 – 18. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323511693

[76] Nyoni T (2018f). The war against corruption in Nigeria: devouring or sharing the national cake? University of Munich Library – Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA), Paper No. 87615. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326177599

[77] Nyoni, T & Bonga, W. G (2017d). Cashless Transacting Economy: A Necessary Evil for Development! A Zimbabwean Scenario! DRJ – Journal of Economics and Finance, 2 (4): 1 – 10. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316475627

[78] Nyoni, T & Bonga, W. G (2017f). An Empirical Analysis of the Determinants of Private Investment in Zimbabwe, DRJ – Journal of Economics and Finance, 2 (4): 38 – 54. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316560900

[79] Nyoni, T (2017). The Curse of Corruption in Zimbabwe, International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications, 1 (5): 285 – 291. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321704136

[80] Nyoni, T (2018c). A Critical Diagnosis of the Success/Failure of Economic Policies in Zimbabwe During the Banana (1980 – 1987) and the Mugabe (1988 – 2017) Administrations: Learning the Hard Way, DRJ – Journal of Business and Management, 1 (2): 27 – 33. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323535180

[81] Nyoni, T (2018e). An empirical investigation of factors affecting the performance of women entrepreneurs in Harare: a case of food vendors, University of Munich Library – Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA), Paper No. 87523. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326177592

[82] Nyoni, T (2018j). The Entrepreneurship Miracle: A Desperate Move To Rectify Zimbabwe’s Socio – Economic Herculean? University of Munich Library – Munich Personal RePEc Archive (MPRA), Paper No. 87735. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326377449

[83] Odebretcht, M (2013). Women, entrepreneurship and the opportunity to promote development and business, Brookings Blum Roundtable Policy Briefs. https://www.brookings.edu/research/women-entrepreneurship-and-the-opportunity-to-promote-development-and-business/

[84] Olomi, D (2009). From economic necessity to entrepreneurship. In D. Olomi (ed), African Entrepreneurship and Small Business Development: Context and Process (66 – 81), University of Dares Salaam Press, Dares Salaam.

[85] Perunovic, Z (2005). Introducing opportunity – based entrepreneurship in a transition economy. Policy Brief No. 39, University of Michigan Press, Michigan.

[86] Pfeiffer, F & Reize, F (2000). Business start – ups by the unemployed – an econometric analysis based on firm data, Labor Economics, 7 (2000): 629 – 663. https://econpapers.repec.org/article/eeelabeco/v_3a7_3ay_3a2000_3ai_3a5_3ap_3a629-663.htm

[87] Reynolds, P., Bosma, N., Autio, E., Hunt, S., De Bono, N., Servais, I., Lopez – Garcia, P & Chin, N (2005). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: data collection, design and implementation – 1998 – 2003, Small Business Economics, 24 (3): 205 – 231. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11187-005-1980-1

[88] Reynolds, P., Bygrave, W. D., Autio, E & Hay, M (2002). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: 2002 Executive Report, London Business School, London. http://www.esbri.se/gemglobalreport_2002.pdf

[89] Rusvingo, S. L (2015). The Zimbabwe Economic Blues! Thousands of retrenches turn to street vending to eke out a living, International Journal of Economics, Commerce and Management, II (6): 968 – 998. http://ijecm.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/3661.pdf

[90] Shane, S (2009). Why encouraging more people to become entrepreneurs is bad public policy, Small Business Economics, 33 (2): 141 – 149. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11187-009-9215-5

[91] Shane, S., Kolvereid, L & Westhead, P (1991). An explanatory examination of the reasons to new firm formation across country and gender, Journal of Business Venturing, 6 (1991): 431 – 446. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/088390269190029D

[92] Shumba, V (2015). The role of Christian churches in entrepreneurial stimulation, The International Journal of Business & Management, 3 (7): 152 – 157. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280918142

[93] Smallbone, D & Welter, F (2004). Entrepreneurship in transition economies: necessity or opportunity driven? http://www.babson.edu/entrep//fer/BABSON2003/XXV/XXV-S8/xxv-s8.htm

[94] Stantarelli, E & Vivarelli, M (2007). Entrepreneurship and the process of firm’s entry, survival and growth, Industrial and Corporate Change, 16 (3): 455 – 488. https://academic.oup.com/icc/article-abstract/16/3/455/651874?redirectedFrom=fulltext

[95] Stenholm, P., Acs, Z. J & Wuebker, R (2013). Exploring country level institutional arrangements on the rate and type of entrepreneurial activity, Journal of Business Venturing, 28 (1): 176 – 193. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S088390261100108X

[96] Storey, D (1991). The birth of new firms – does unemployment matter? A review of the evidence, Small Business Economics, 3 (1991): 167 – 178. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00400022

[97] Thompson, P (2011). Necessity and opportunity entrepreneurs through the business cycle, Florida International University, Miami. http://www.peterthompson.gatech.edu/uploads/images/Papers/nec-opp.pdf

[98] Ubong, B (2013). Entrepreneurship and nation building in a changing environment, 4 (16): 115 – 135, http://dx.doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n16p115

[99] Valdez, M. E & Richardson, J (2013). Institutional determinants of macro – level entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37 (5): 1149 – 1175. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/etap.12000

[100] van Stel, A & Storey, D. J (2004). The link between firm births and job creation: is there a Upas Tree Efffect? Regional Studies, 38 (8): 893 – 909. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0034340042000280929

[101] Vivarelli, M & Audretsch, D (1998). The link between the entry decision and post – entry performance: evidence from Italy, Industrial and Corporate Change, 7 (1998): 485 – 500. https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/the-link-between-the-entry-decision-and-post-entry-performance-6mPg01FxzY

[102] Wagner, J (2007). What a difference a Y makes – female and male nascent entrepreneurs in Germany, Small Business Economics, 28 (2007): 1 – 21. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5158391

[103] Wennekers, A. R. M., Uhlaner, L. M & Thurik, A. R (2002). Entrepreneurship and its conditions: a macro perspective, International Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, 1 (1): 25 – 64. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254804180

[104] Wennekers, A. R. M., van Stel, A., Thurik, A. R & Reynolds, P. D (2005). Nascent entrepreneurship and the level of economic development, Small Business Economics, 24 (3): 293 – 309. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11187-005-1994-8

[105] Williams, C. C (2008b). Beyond necessity versus opportunity driven entrepreneurship: a study of informal entrepreneurs in England, Russia and Ukraine, The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 9 (3): 157 – 165. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2287082

[106] Zikhali, W (2017). Urban informality and livelihoods in Zimbabwe: a case of street vendors in Bulawayo’s two high – density suburbs, Global Science Research Journals, 5 (4): 140 – 149.

[107] Zimmerer, T. W & Scarborough, N. M (2001). Essentials of entrepreneurship and small business management, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. https://books.google.co.zw/books/about/Essentials_of_Entrepreneurship_and_Small.html?id=whNPHwAACAAJ&redir_esc=y

[108] Zindiye, S., Chiliya, N & Masocha, R (2012). The impact of government and other institution’s support on the performance of Small and Medium Enterprises in the manufacturing sector in Harare, Zimbabwe, International Journal of Business Management and Economic Research, 3 (6): 655 – 667. http://www.ijbmer.com/docs/volumes/vol3issue6/ijbmer2012030604.pdf