‘Born this Way’? Prenatal Exposure to Testosterone May Determine Behavior in Competition and Conflict

Brañas-Garza, Pablo and Chowdhury, Subhasish and Espín, Antonio M. and Nieboer, Jeroen (2019): ‘Born this Way’? Prenatal Exposure to Testosterone May Determine Behavior in Competition and Conflict.

Abstract

It is documented that fetal exposure to sexual hormones has long lasting effects on human behavior. The second-to-fourth digit ratio (DR) is a putative marker for prenatal exposure to testosterone (compared to estrogens) while in uterus, with higher relative exposure to testosterone resulting in a lower DR. Although the existing literature documents the correlation of DR with various decisions, and testosterone has been related to competitive behaviors, little research has studied the effect of DR on competition in conflict situations where skills do not matter. We investigate this question in the laboratory. Based on a previously obtained large sample of student subjects, we selectively invite subjects to the laboratory if their right-hand DR is in the top (High type) or bottom (Low type) tercile for their gender. Unbeknownst to the subjects, we perform a controlled match of High and Low types as opponents in a 2-person Tullock contest. We find that Low type (higher exposure to testosterone) males expend significantly higher conflict effort than High type males, that is, they are more aggressive, which reduces their opponents’ earnings. Among females, however, everyone is more aggressive against the High type (who respond less aggressively). These results can partially be explained through high joy of winning and/or spitefulness for Low type males, and high spitefulness for Low type females. This investigation sheds light on the importance of biological aspects in the ex-ante determinants of conflict, and on contest design.

• Item Type: MPRA Paper
• Language: English
• Keywords: Digit Ratio; Contest; Conflict; Gender: Lab Experiments
• Subjects: C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods > C7 - Game Theory and Bargaining Theory > C72 - Noncooperative Games; C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods > C9 - Design of Experiments > C91 - Laboratory, Individual Behavior

References

Abbink, K., Brandts, J., Herrmann, B., Orzen, H. (2010). Intergroup conflict and intra-group punishment in an experimental contest game. The American Economic Review 100(1), 420-47.

Anderson, R. A., Bancroft, J., Wu, F. C. (1992). The effects of exogenous testosterone on sexuality and mood of normal men. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 75(6), 1503-1507.

Arnold A.P., Breedlove S.M. (1985). Organizational and activational effects of sex steroids on brain and behavior: a reanalysis. Hormones and Behavior 19(4), 469-498.

Auger, J., Le Denmat, D., Berges, R., Doridot, L., Salmon, B., Canivenc-Lavier, M. C., Eustache, F. (2013). Environmental levels of oestrogenic and antiandrogenic compounds feminize digit ratios in male rats and their unexposed male progeny. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 280(1768).

Bailey, A. A., Hurd, P. L. (2005). Finger length ratio (2D: 4D) correlates with physical aggression in men but not in women. Biological Psychology 68(3), 215-222.

Bao, A. M., Swaab, D. F. (2011). Sexual differentiation of the human brain: relation to gender identity, sexual orientation and neuropsychiatric disorders. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 32(2), 214-226.

Benderlioglu, Z., Nelson, R. J. (2004). Digit length ratios predict reactive aggression in women, but not in men. Hormones and Behavior 46(5), 558-564.

Bennett, M., Manning, J. T., Cook, C. J., Kilduff, L. P. (2010). Digit ratio (2D: 4D) and performance in elite rugby players. Journal of Sports Sciences 28(13), 1415-1421.

Berenbaum, S. A., Bryk, K. K., Nowak, N., Quigley, C. A., Moffat, S. (2009). Fingers as a marker of prenatal androgen exposure. Endocrinology 150(11), 5119-5124.

Berman, M., Gladue, B., Taylor, S. (1993). The effects of hormones, Type A behavior pattern, and provocation on aggression in men. Motivation and Emotion 17(2), 125-138.

Bönte, W., Procher, V. D., Urbig, D. (2016). Biology and selection into entrepreneurship—The relevance of prenatal testosterone exposure. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice 40(5), 1121-1148.

Bönte, W., Procher, V. D., Urbig, D., Voracek, M. (2017). Digit Ratio (2D: 4D) Predicts Self-Reported Measures of General Competitiveness, but Not Behavior in Economic Experiments. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 11, 238.

Bosch-Domènech, A., Brañas-Garza, P., Espín, A. M. (2014). Can exposure to prenatal sex hormones (2D: 4D) predict cognitive reflection? Psychoneuroendocrinology 43, 1-10.

Brañas-Garza, P., Espín, A. M., Garcia, T., Kovářík, J. (2019). Digit ratio (2D: 4D) predicts and pro-social behavior in economic games: No direct correlation. MPRA Paper No. 89142.

Brañas-Garza, P., Galizzi, M. M., Nieboer, J. (2018). Experimental and self-reported measures of risk taking and digit ratio (2D:4D): evidence from a large, systematic study. International Economic Review 59(3): 1131-1157.

Brañas-Garza, P., Kovarik, J., Neyse, L. (2013). Second-to-fourth digit ratio has a non-monotonic impact on altruism. PLoS ONE 8(4): e60419.

Brañas-Garza, P., Rustichini, A. (2011). Organizing effects of testosterone on economic behavior: Not just risk taking. PLoS ONE 6(12), e0029842.

Brown, W.M., Hines, M., Fane, B.A., Breedlove, S.M. (2002). Masculinized finger length patterns in human males and females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Hormones and Behavior 42(4), 380–386.

Buser, T. (2012). Digit ratios, the menstrual cycle and social preferences. Games and Economic Behavior 76(2), 457-470.

Carré, J. M., McCormick, C. M. (2008). Aggressive behavior and change in salivary testosterone concentrations predict willingness to engage in a competitive task. Hormones and Behavior 54(3), 403-409.

Cecchi, F., Duchoslav, I. (2018). The Effect of Prenatal Stress on Cooperation: Evidence from Violent Conflict in Uganda. European Economic Review 101(1): 35-56.

Charness, G., Gneezy, U. (2012). Strong evidence for gender differences in risk taking. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 83(1), 50-58.

Chowdhury, S. M., Sheremeta, R. M. (2011). Multiple equilibria in Tullock contests. Economics Letters 112(2), 216-219.

Chowdhury, S. M., Esteve-Gonzalez, P., Mukherjee, A. (2019). Heterogeneity, Competitive Balance, and Affirmative Action in Contests, Mimeo.

Chowdhury, S. M., Jeon, J. Y., Ramalingam, A. (2016). Identity and group conflict. European Economic Review 90, 107-121.

Chowdhury, S.M., Jeon, J.Y., Ramalingam, A. (2018). Property Rights and Loss-aversion in Contests, Economic Inquiry 56(3), 1492-1511.

Chowdhury, S.M., Sheremeta, R.M., Turocy, T. (2014). Overbidding and Overspreading in Rent-seeking Experiments: Cost Structure and Prize Allocation Rules, Games and Economic Behavior 87, 224-238.

Coates J.M., Herbert, J. (2008) Endogenous steroids and financial risk taking on a London trading floor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, 6167–6172.

Coates, J. M., Gurnell, M., Rustichini, A. (2009). Second-to-fourth digit ratio predicts success among high-frequency financial traders. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106(2), 623-628.

Coates, J.M., Gurnell, M., Sarnyai, Z. (2010). From molecule to market: steroid hormones and financial risk-taking. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365: 331-343.

Crewther, B., Cook, C., Kilduff, L., Manning, J. (2015). Digit ratio (2D: 4D) and salivary testosterone, oestradiol and cortisol levels under challenge: Evidence for prenatal effects on adult endocrine responses. Early Human Development 91(8), 451-456.

Cronqvist, H., Previtero, A., Siegel, S., White, R.T. (2016). The fetal origins hypothesis in finance: prenatal environment, financial risk taking. Review of Financial Studies 29, 739-786.

Croson, R., Gneezy, U. (2009). Gender Differences in Preferences. Journal of Economic Literature 47(2), 448-74.

Dabbs, J. M., Dabbs, M. G. (2000). Heroes, rogues, and lovers: Testosterone and behavior. McGraw-Hill.

Dalton, P.S., Ghosal, S. (2018). Self-confidence, overconfidence and prenatal testosterone exposure: evidence from the lab. Frontiers in Behavioural Neuroscience 12: 5.

Dreber, A., Hoffman M (2007). Portfolio selection in utero. Mimeo. Stockholm School of Economics.

Eckel, C.C., Grossman, P.J. (2008). Men, Women and Risk Aversion: Experimental Evidence. Handbook of Experimental Economics Results vol 1, 1061-1073.

Eisenegger, C., Naef, M., Snozzi, R., Heinrichs, M., Fehr, E. (2010). Prejudice and truth about the effect of testosterone on human bargaining behaviour. Nature 463(7279), 356.

Espín, A. M., Correa, M., Ruiz-Villaverde, A. (2017). Patience Predicts Cooperative Synergy: The Roles of Ingroup Bias and Reciprocity. SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2596837

Espín, A. M., Exadaktylos, F., Herrmann, B., Brañas-Garza, P. (2015). Short-and long-run goals in ultimatum bargaining: impatience predicts spite-based behavior. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 9, 214.

Fallucchi, F., Renner, E., Sefton, M. (2013). Information feedback and contest structure in rent-seeking games. European Economic Review 64, 223-240.

Fehr, E., Schmidt, K. M. (1999). A theory of fairness, competition, and cooperation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 114(3), 817-868.

Finegan, J.K., Bartleman, B., Wong, P.Y. (1989). A window for the study of prenatal sex hormone influences on postnatal development. The Journal of Genetic Psychology 150, 101–112.

Fink, B., Neave, N., Manning, J. T. (2003). Second to fourth digit ratio, body mass index, waist-to-hip ratio, and waist-to-chest ratio: their relationships in heterosexual men and women. Annals of Human Biology 30(6), 728-738.

Fischbacher, U. (2007). z-Tree: Zurich Toolbox for Ready-made Economic Experiments. Experimental Economics 10(2), 171-178.

Galis, F., Ten Broek, C.M.A., Van Dongen, S., Wijnaendts, L.C.D. (2010). Sexual Dimorphism in the Prenatal Digit Ratio (2D:4D). Archives of Sexual Behavior 39(1): 57-62.

Galizzi, M.M., Nieboer, J. (2015). Digit ratio (2D:4D) and altruism: evidence from a large, multi-ethnic sample. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 23,41

Garbarino, E., Slonim, R., Sydnor, J. (2011). Digit ratios (2D: 4D) as predictors of risky decision making for both sexes. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 42(1), 1-26.

Garn, S. M., Burdi, A. R., Babler, W. J., Stinson, S. (1975). Early prenatal attainment of adult metacarpal-phalangeal rankings and proportions. American Journal of Physical Anthro-pology 43(3), 327-332.

Goy, R.W., McEwen, B.S. (1980). Sexual differentiation of the brain. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Gupta, N., Poulse, A., Villeval, M.C. (2013). Gender matching and competitiveness: experimental evidence. Economic Inquire 51(1), 816-835.

Herbert, J. (2018). Testosterone, Cortisol and Financial Risk-Taking. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 12: 101.

Herbert, J. (2015). Testosterone: The molecule behind power, sex, and the will to win. OUP Oxford.

Hermans, E. J., Putman, P., Van Honk, J. (2006). Testosterone administration reduces empathetic behavior: a facial mimicry study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 31(7), 859-866.

Herrmann, B., Orzen, H. (2008) The appearance of homo rivalis: social preferences and the nature of rent seeking. CeDEx Discussion Paper Series, 2008-10.

Hines M, Golombok S, Rust J, Johnston K, Golding J and The ALSPAC Study Team (2002). Testosterone during pregnancy and childhood gender role behavior: a longitudinal population study. Child Development 73, 1678–1687.

Hines, M. (2006) Prenatal testosterone and gender-related behaviour. European Journal of Endocrinology 155, 115–121.

Kim, T. B., Oh, J. K., Kim, K. T., Yoon, S. J., Kim, S. W. (2015). Does the mother or father determine the offspring sex ratio? Investigating the relationship between maternal digit ratio and offspring sex ratio. PLoS ONE 10(11), e0143054.

Kivlighan, K. T., Granger, D. A., Booth, A. (2005). Gender differences in testosterone and cortisol response to competition. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(1), 58-71.

Konrad, K.A. (2009). Strategy and Dynamics in Contest. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lim, W., Matros, A., Turocy, T. L. (2014). Bounded rationality and group size in Tullock contests: Experimental evidence. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 99, 155-167.

Lutchmaya, S., Baron-Cohen, S., Raggatt, P., Knickmeyer, R., Manning, J.T. (2004). 2nd to 4th digit ratios, fetal testosterone and estradiol. Early Human Development 77, 23–28.

Mago, S.D., Razzolini, L. (2018). Best-of-five Contest: An Experiment on Gender Differences, Mimeo

Mago, S.D., Samak, A. C., Sheremeta, R.M. (2016). Facing your opponents: Social identification and information feedback in contests. Journal of Conflict Resolution 60(3), 459-481.

Malas M.A., Dogan S., Evcil E.H., Desdicioglu K. (2006). Fetal development of the hand, digits and digits ratio (2D:4D). Early Human Development 82, 469–475.

Manning, J. T., Fink, B. (2008). Digit ratio (2D: 4D), dominance, reproductive success, asymmetry, and sociosexuality in the BBC Internet Study. American Journal of Human Biology 20(4), 451-461.

Manning, J. T., Taylor, R. P. (2001). Second to fourth digit ratio and male ability in sport: implications for sexual selection in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior 22(1), 61-69.

Manning, J. T., Scutt, D., Wilson, J., Lewis-Jones, D. I. (1998). The ratio of 2nd to 4th digit length: a predictor of sperm numbers and concentrations of testosterone, luteinizing hormone and oestrogen. Human Reproduction 13(11), 3000-3004.

Manning, J.T., Kilduff, L.P., Trivers, R. (2013). Digit ratio (2D:4D) in Klinefelter’s syndrome. Andrology 1(1), 94–99.

Mazur, A., Lamb, T. A. (1980). Testosterone, status, and mood in human males. Hormones and Behavior 14(3), 236-246.

McIntyre, M.H., Ellison, P.T., Lieberman, D.E., Demerath, E., Towne, B. (2005). The development of sex differences in digital formula from infancy in the Fels Longitudinal Study. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 272(1571), 1473-1479.

Neave, N., Laing, S., Fink, B., Manning, J.T. (2003). Second to fourth digit ratio, testosterone and perceived male dominance. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 270(1529), 2167–2172.

Neyse, L., Bosworth, S., Ring, P., Schmidt, U. (2016). Overconfidence, incentives and digit ratio. Scientific Reports 6, 23294.

Neyse, L., Brañas‐Garza, P. (2014). Digit Ratio Measurement Guide. MPRA WPaper 54134.

Nicolaou, N., Patel, P.C., Wolfe, M.T. (2018). Testosterone and tendency to engage in self-employment. Management Science 64 (4), 1825-1841

Niederle, M., Vesterlund, L. (2007). Do women shy away from competition? Do men compete too much? The Quarterly Journal of Economics 122(3), 1067-1101.

O’connor, D. B., Archer, J., Wu, F. C. (2004). Effects of testosterone on mood, aggression, and sexual behavior in young men: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 89(6), 2837-2845.

O'Connor, D. B., Archer, J., Hair, W. M., Wu, F. C. (2002). Exogenous testosterone, aggression, and mood in eugonadal and hypogonadal men. Physiology & Behavior 75(4), 557-566.

Pearson, M., Schipper, B. C. (2012). The Visible Hand: Finger ratio (2D: 4D) and competitive bidding. Experimental Economics 15(3), 510-529.

Pope, H. G., Kouri, E. M., Hudson, J. I. (2000). Effects of supraphysiologic doses of testosterone on mood and aggression in normal men: a randomized controlled trial. Archives of General Psychiatry 57(2), 133-140.

Potters, J., De Vries, C. G., Van Winden, F. (1998). An experimental examination of rational rent-seeking. European Journal of Political Economy 14(4), 783-800.

Price, C. R., Sheremeta, R. M. (2015). Endowment origin, demographic effects, and individual preferences in contests. Journal of Economics & Management Strategy 24(3), 597-619.

Rockenbach, B., Waligora, M. (2016). Desire to win drives overbidding in Tullock contests. SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2727153

Rodeck, C.H., Gill, D., Rosenberg, D.A., Collins, W.P. (1985) Testosterone levels in midtrimester maternal and fetal plasma and amniotic fluid. Prenatal Diagnosis 5, 175–181.

Ronay, R., von Hippel, W. (2010). Power, testosterone, and risk-taking. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 23(5), 473-482.

Salvador, A., Suay, F., Martinez–Sanchis, S., Simon, V. M., Brain, P. F. (1999). Correlating testosterone and fighting in male participants in judo contests. Physiology & Behavior 68(1-2), 205-209.

Sapienza, P., Zingales, L., Maestripieri, D. (2009). Gender differences in financial risk aversion and career choices are affected by testosterone. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106(36), 15268-15273.

Schultheiss, O. C., Rohde, W. (2002). Implicit power motivation predicts men's testosterone changes and implicit learning in a contest situation. Hormones and Behavior 41(2), 195-202.

Sheremeta, R. (2016). Impulsive Behavior in Competition: Testing Theories of Overbidding in Rent-Seeking Contests. Mimeo.

Sheremeta, R. M. (2013). Overbidding and heterogeneous behavior in contest experiments. Journal of Economic Surveys 27(3), 491-514.

Sheremeta, R. M. (2010). Experimental comparison of multi-stage and one-stage contests. Games and Economic Behavior 68(2), 731-747.

Skaperdas, S. (1996). Contest success functions. Economic Theory 7(2), 283-290.

Suay, F., Salvador, A., González-Bono, E., Sanchıs, C., Martınez, M., Martınez-Sanchis, S., ... Montoro, J. B. (1999). Effects of competition and its outcome on serum testosterone, cortisol and prolactin. Psychoneuroendocrinology 24(5), 551-566.

Szidarovszky, F., Okuguchi, K. (1997). On the existence and uniqueness of pure Nash equilibrium in rent-seeking games. Games and Economic Behavior 18(1), 135-140.

Tester, N., Campbell, A. (2007). Sporting achievement: what is the contribution of digit ratio? Journal of Personality 75(4), 663-77.

Tricker, R., Casaburi, R., Storer, T. W., Clevenger, B., Berman, N., Shirazi, A., Bhasin, S. (1996). The effects of supraphysiological doses of testosterone on angry behavior in healthy eugonadal men--a clinical research center study. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 81(10), 3754-3758.

Trivers, R., Manning, J.T., Jacobson, A. (2006). A longitudinal study of digit ratio (2D: 4D) and other finger ratios in Jamaican children. Hormones and Behavior 49(2), 150-156.

Tullock, G. (1980). Efficient Rent Seeking. In J.M. Buchanan, R.D. Tollison, & G. Tullock, (Eds.), Toward a Theory of the Rent-Seeking Society. Texas A&M University Press, College Station, TX, 97-112.

Turanovic, J. J., Pratt, T. C., Piquero, A. R. (2017). Exposure to fetal testosterone, aggression, and violent behavior: A meta-analysis of the 2D: 4D digit ratio. Aggression and Violent Behavior 33, 51-61.

Udry J.R., Morris, N.M., Kovenock, J. (1995). Androgen effects on women’s gendered behaviour. Journal of Biosocial Science 27 359–368. 22

Van Anders, S.M., Vernon, P.A., Wilbur, C.J. (2006). Finger-length ratios show evidence of prenatal hormone-transfer between opposite-sex twins. Hormones and Behavior 49(3), 315–319.

Van den Bergh, B., Dewitte, S. (2006). Digit ratio (2D : 4D) moderates the impact of sexual cues on men's decisions in ultimatum games. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 273(1597), 2091-5.

Van Honk, J., Montoya, E. R., Bos, P. A., Van Vugt, M., Terburg, D. (2012). New evidence on testosterone and cooperation. Nature 485(7399), E4.

van Honk, J., Schutter, D. J., Hermans, E. J., Putman, P., Tuiten, A., Koppeschaar, H. (2004). Testosterone shifts the balance between sensitivity for punishment and reward in healthy young women. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29(7), 937-943.

Ventura, T., Gomes, M.C., Pita, A., Neto, M.T., Taylor, A. (2013). Digit ratio (2D:4D) in newborns: influences of prenatal testosterone and maternal environment. Early Human Development 89(2), 107–112.

Vojnović, M. (2016). Contest theory: Incentive mechanisms and ranking methods. Cambridge University Press.

Zak, P. J., Kurzban, R., Ahmadi, S., Swerdloff, R. S., Park, J., Efremidze, L., ... & Matzner, W. (2009). Testosterone administration decreases generosity in the ultimatum game. PLoS ONE 4(12), e8330.

Zheng, Z., Cohn, M.J. (2011). Developmental basis of sexually dimorphic digit ratios. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, 16289–16294.