Determinantes de la desigualdad en el desempeño educativo en la Argentina

Marchionni, Mariana and Pinto, Florencia and Vazquez, Emmanuel (2013): Determinantes de la desigualdad en el desempeño educativo en la Argentina. Published in: Anales de la Asociación Argentina de Economía Política. No. XLVIII Reunión Anual (November 2013)

Abstract

Inequality in PISA test scores of Argentinean students is among the highest of the participating countries. This paper explores the determinants of this inequality and quantifies the marginal contribution of characteristics of students and schools. We estimate Multilevel Models of the determinants of PISA 2009 reading results for Argentina and decompose the overall score inequality based on the methodology proposed by Lerman and Yitzhaki (1985) to decompose the Gini coefficient of total income by income source. The main result is that overall test scores inequality is mainly due to the high socioeconomic segregation among Argentinean schools.

• Item Type: MPRA Paper
• English Title: Determinants of the inequality in PISA test scores in Argentina
• Language: Spanish
• Keywords: Educación, desigualdad, descomposición del GINI, PISA, Argentina
• Subjects: I - Health, Education, and Welfare > I2 - Education and Research Institutions > I24 - Education and Inequality

References

Abdul-Hamid, H. (2007). “Assessing Argentina’s preparedness for the knowledge economy: Measuring student knowledge and skills in reading, mathematical and scientific literacy with evidence from PISA 2000.” Well-being and Social Policy, Vol. 3(2): 41-66.

Almond, D. y J. Currie (2011). “Human Capital Development before Age Five”. En: O. Ashenfelter y D. Card (eds.). Handbook of Labor Economics, Volume 4. Elsevier.

Altonji, J., T. Elder y C. Taber (2005). “Selection on observed and unobserved variables: assessing the effectiveness of catholic schools.” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 113 (1): 151-184.

Ammermüller, A. (2005). “Educational opportunities and the role of institutions.” ZEW Discussion Paper 05-44.

Ammermüller, A., H. Heijke y L. Wößmann. (2005). “Schooling quality in Eastern Europe: Educational production during transition.” Economics of Education Review, Vol. 24 (5): 579-599.

Ammermueller, A. y J. Pischke (2006). “Peer Effects in European Primary Schools: Evidence from PIRLS”. Iza Discussion Paper 2077.

Angrist, J. y V. Lavy (2002). “New evidence on classroom computers and pupil learning.” The Economic Journal, Vol. 112(482): 735-765.

Angrist, J., E. Bettinger, E. Bloom, E. King y M. Kremer (2002). “Vouchers for private schooling in Colombia: Evidence from a randomized natural experiment.” American Economic Review, Vol. 92 (5): 1535-1538.

Banerjee, A., S. Cole, E. Duflo y L. Linden (2007). “Remedying education: Evidence from two randomized experiments in India.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 122(3): 1235-1264.

Barrera-Osorio, F. y L. Linden (2009). “The use and misuse of computers in education: evidence from a randomized experiment in Colombia.” Policy Research Working Paper Series 4836, The World Bank.

Barrow, L., L. Markman y C. Rouse (2009). “Technology's edge: The educational benefits of computer-aided instruction.” American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, Vol. 1(1): 52–74.

Barton, P., R. Coley y H. Wenglinsky (1998). Order in the classroom: Violence, discipline and student achievement. Princeton, NJ: Policy Information Center, Educational testing service.

Becker, G. (1964). Human Capital. Nueva York: Columbia University Press.

Behrman, J. (1990). Human Resource Led Development? Review of Issues and Evidence. New Delhi: International Labour Office. Asian Regional Team for Employment Promotion (ILO-ARTEP).

Bellei, C. (2007). “Expansión de la educación privada y mejoramiento de la educación en Chile. Evaluación a partir de la evidencia.” Revista Pensamiento Educativo, Vol. 40(1).

Belot, M. y V. Vandenberghe (2009). “Grade retention and educational attainment. Exploting the 2001 Reform by the French-Speaking Community of Belgium and Synthetic Control Methods.” Discussion Paper 2009-22, Institut de Recherches Économiques et Sociales de l´Université Catholique de Louvain.

Best, R. (1983). We All Have Scars. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Betts, J. (2011). “The Economics of Tracking in Education.” En: E. Hanushek, S. Machin y L. Wößmann (eds.). Handbook of the Economics of Education, Volume 3. Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 341-382.

Bhrolchain, M., R. Chappel, I. Diamond y C. Jameson (2000). “Parental divorce and outcomes for children: evidence and interpretation.” European Sociological Review, 16(1): 67-91.

Biblarz, T. y G. Gottainer (2000). “Family structure and children's success: a comparison of widowed and divorce single-mother families.” Journal of Marriage and the Family, Vol. 62: 533-548.

Bishop, J. y L. Wößmann (2004). “Institutional effects in a simple model of educational production.” Education Economics, Vol. 12(1): 17-38.

Björklund, A., D. Ginther y M. Sundström (2004). “Family Structure and Child Outcomes in the United States and Sweden.” IZA Discussion Paper 1259.

Black, S., P. Devereux y K. Salvanes (2005). “The More the Merrier? The Effect of Family Size and Birth Order on Children's Education.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 120(2): 669-700.

Blase, J. (1986). “A qualitative analysis of sources of teacher stress: Consequences for performance.” American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 23: 23–40.

Borg, M., R. Riding y J. Falzon (1991). “Stress in teaching: A study of occupational stress and its determinants, job satisfaction and career commitment among primary schoolteachers.” Educational Psychology, Vol. 11(1): 59–75.

Brunello, G. y D. Checchi (2007). “Does school tracking affect equality of opportunity? New international evidence.” Economic Policy, Vol. 22 (52): 781-861.

Busso, M. y S. Berlinski (2013). “Pedagogical Change in Mathematics Teaching: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial”. Mimeo.

Calero, J. y J-O. Escardíbul (2007). “Evaluación de servicios educativos: el rendimiento en los centros públicos y privados medido en PISA-2003.” Hacienda Pública Española, Vol. 183(4): 33-66.

Calero, J. y S. Waisgrais (2009). “Factores de desigualdad en la educación española. Una aproximación a través de las evaluaciones de PISA.” Papeles de Economía Española, Vol. 119: 86-98.

Calero, J., A. Choi y S. Waisgraiss (2009). “Determinantes del rendimiento educativo del alumnado de origen nacional e inmigrante en PISA-2006.” Cuadernos Económicos de ICE, Vol. 78: 281-310.

Card, D. y A. Krueger (1992). “Does school quality matter? Returns to education and the characteristics of public schools in the United States.” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 100(1): 1-40.

Carneiro, P. y J. Heckman (2003). “Human Capital Policy.” En J. Heckman y A. Krueger (eds.). Inequality in America: What Role for Human Capital Policies? Cambridge MA: The MIT Press.

Catsambis, S. (1994). “The path to math: gender and racial/ethnic differences in mathematics participation from middle school to high school.” Sociology of Education, Vol. 67: 199–215.

Cervini, R. (1999). Calidad y equidad en la educación básica en la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Ministerio de Cultura y Educación de la Nación.

Cervini, R. (2003). “Diferencias de resultados cognitivos y no-cognitivos entre estudiantes de escuelas públicas y privadas en la educación secundaria de Argentina: Un análisis multinivel.” Education Policy Analysis Archives, Vol. 11(6).

Cervini, R. (2006). “Los efectos de la escuela y del aula sobre el logro en matemáticas y en lengua de la educación secundaria. Un modelo multinivel.” Perfiles educativos, Vol. XXVIII(112): 68-97.

Chen, X., L. Chengfang, L. Zhang, Y. Shi y S. Rozelle (2010). “Does taking one step back get you two steps forward? Grade retention and school performance in poor areas in rural China.” International Journal of Educational Development, Vol. 30: 544-559.

Chiswick, B. y N. DebBurman (2004). “Educational attainment: Analysis by immigrant generation.” Economics of Education Review, Vol. 23: 361-379.

Cotton, K. (1996). “School size, school climate, and student performance.” School Improvement Research Series, Series X, Close-Up No. 20.

Cox, D. y Jimenez, E. (1990). “The relative effectiveness of private and public schools: Evidence from two developing countries.” Journal of Development Economics, Vol. 34(1-2): 99-121.

Cunha, F. y J. Heckman (2007). “The Technology of Skill Formation.” American Economic Review, Vol. 97(2): 31-47.

Currie, J. (2001). “Early Childhood Education Programs”. Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 15(2): 213-238.

Datcher-Loury, L. (1988). “Family background and school achievement among low income blacks.” The Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 24(3): 528-544.

DeRobbio, R. y E. Iwanicki (1996). “Factors accounting for burnout among secondary school teachers.” Trabajo presentado en la conferencia anual de la American Educational Research Association. New York.

Downey, D. y A. Vogt Yuan (2005). “Sex differences in school performance during high school: puzzling patterns and possible explanations.” The Sociological Quarterly, Vol 46: 299–321.

Driscoll, D., D. Halcoussis y S. Svorny (2003). “School district size and student performance.” Economics of Education Review, Vol. 22(2): 193–201.

Dronkers, J. y P. Robert (2003). “The effectiveness of public and private schools from a comparative perspective.” EUI Working Paper SPS 2003-13, European University Institute.

Duarte, J., M. Bos. y M. Moreno (2011). “Los docentes, las escuelas y los aprendizajes escolares en América Latina: Un estudio regional usando la base de datos del SERCE.” Notas técnicas del BID # IDB-TN-267.

Duflo, E., P. Dupas y M. Kremer (2011). “Peer Effects, Teacher Incentives, and the Impact of Tracking: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation in Kenya.” American Economic Review, Vol. 101(5): 1739-1774.

Entorf, H. y N. Minoiu (2004). “PISA results: What a difference immigration law makes.” IZA Discussion Paper N° 1021.

Epple, D. y R. Romano (1998). “Competition between private and public schools, vouchers, and peer-group effects.” American Economic Review, Vol. 88(1): 33–62.

Evans, W. y R. Schwab (1995). “Finishing high school and starting college: Do catholic schools make a difference?” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 110(4): 941-974.

Feingold, A. (1988). “Cognitive gender differences are disappearing.” American Psychologist, Vol. 43: 95–103.

Feinstein, L. y J. Symons (1997). “Attainment in secondary school.” Centre for Economic Performance Discussion Paper 341.

Ferguson, R. (1991). “Paying for public education: New evidence on how and why money matters.” Harvard Journal on Legislation, Vol. 28: 466–498.

Fernández Aguerre, T. (2002). “Determinantes sociales e institucionales de la desigualdad educativa en sexto año de educación primaria de Argentina y Uruguay, 1999. Una aproximación mediante un modelo de regresión logística.” Revista mexicana de investigación educativa, Vol. 7(16): 501-536.

Fertig, M. (2003a). “Educational Production, Endogenous Peer Group Formation and Class Composition - Evidence From the PISA 2000 Study.” Royal Economic Society Annual Conference.

Fertig, M. (2003b). “Who’s to blame? The determinants of German students’ achievement in the PISA 2000 study.” IZA Discussion Paper N° 739.

Figlio, D. y J. Stone (1997). “School choice and student performance: Are private schools really better?” Institute for Research on Poverty Discussion Papers 1141-97, University of Wisconsin Institute for Research on Poverty.

Formichella, M. (2011). “¿Se debe el mayor rendimiento de las escuelas de gestión privada en la Argentina al tipo de administración?” Revista CEPAL, Vol. 105: 151-166.

Fresoli, D., V. Herrero, R. Giuliodori y H. Gertel (2007). “Incidencia de la gestión sobre el rendimiento escolar en la escuela argentina. El mensaje de las pruebas internacionales y nacionales.” Anales de la Asociación Argentina de Economía Política.

Friedman, I. (1995). “Student behavior patterns contributing to teacher burnout.” The Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 88(5): 281–289.

Fuchs, T. y L. Wößmann (2007). “What accounts for international differences in student performance? A re-examination using PISA data.” Empirical Economics, Vol. 32(2-3): 433-464.

Fuller, B y P. Clarke (1994). “Raising school effects while ignoring culture? Local conditions and the influence of classrooms, tools, rules and pedagogy.” Review of Educational Research, Vol. 64(1): 119-157.

Fuller, B. (1986). “Raising school quality in developing countries: What investments boost learning?” The World Bank, Washington D.C.

Gamoran, A. (1996). “Student achievement in public magnet, public comprehensive, and private city high schools.” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, Vol. 18(1): 1-18.

García Pérez, J. I., M. Hidalgo-Hidalgo y J. A. Robles-Zurita (2011). “Does grade retention affect achievement? Some evidence from PISA.” Document de treball de l’IEB 2011/37.

Gasparini, L., D. Jaume, M. Serio y E. Vazquez (2012). “La segregación entre escuelas públicas y privadas en Argentina. Reconstruyendo la evidencia.” Desarrollo Económico, en prensa.

Gertel, H., R. Giuliodori, V. Herrero y D. Fresoli (2007). “Los factores determinantes del rendimiento escolar al término de la educación básica en Argentina. Una aplicación de técnicas de análisis jerárquico de datos.” Anales de las XVI Jornadas de la Asociación de Economía de la Educación.

Gertel, H., R. Giuliodori, V. Herrero, D. Fresoli, M. Vera y G. Morra (2006). “Análisis multinivel del rendimiento escolar al término de la educación básica en Argentina.” Anales de la Asociación Argentina de Economía Política.

Glewwe, P., E. Hanushek, S. Humpage y R. Ravina (2011). “School resources and educational outcomes in developing countries: a review of the literature from 1990 to 2010.” NBER Working Papers 17554, National Bureau of Economic Research.

Glewwe, P., M. Kremer y S. Moulin (2009). “Many children left behind? Textbooks and test scores in Kenya.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, Vol. 1(1): 112-35.

Goldhaber, D. (1996). “Public and private high schools: Is school choice an answer to the productivity problem?” Economics of Education Review, Vol. 15(2): 93-109.

Handa, S. (1994). “Gender headship and intrahousehold resource allocation.”. World Development, Vol. 22, N° 10.

Hanushek, E. (1986). “The economics of schooling: production and efficiency in public schools.” Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 24(3): 1141-1177.

Hanushek, E. (1995). “Interpreting recent research on schooling in developing countries.” World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 10(2): 227-246.

Hanushek, E. (1997). “Assessing the effects of school resources on student performance: An update.” Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, Vol. 19: 141-164.

Hanushek, E. (2006). “School Resources.” En: E. Hanushek y F. Welch (eds.). Handbook of the Economics of Education, Volume 2. Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 865-908.

Hanushek, E. y J. Luque (2003). “Efficiency and equity in schools around the world.” Economics of Education Review, Vol. 22: 481-502.

Hanushek, E. y L. W ößmann (2006). “Does educational tracking affect performance and inequality? Differences- in-differences evidence across countries.” The Economic Journal, Vol. 116(510): 63-76.

Hanushek, E. y L. Wößmann (2011). “The economics of international differences in educational achievement”. En: E. Hanushek, S. Machin y L. Wößmann (eds.). Handbook of the Economics of Education, Volume 3. Amsterdam: North-Holland, pp. 89-200.

Hanushek, E., J. Kain, J. Markman y S. Rivkin (2003). “Does peer ability affect student achievement? Journal of Applied Economics, Vol. 18: 527-544.

Haveman, R. y B. Wolfe (1995). “The determinants of children’s attainment: A review of methods and findings.” Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 33(4): 1829-1878.

He, F., L. Linden y M. MacLeod. (2008). “How to teach English in India: Testing the relative productivity of instruction methods within the Pratham English Language Education Program.” Manuscrito no publicado. Columbia University.

Heckman, J. (2007). “The Economics, Technology and Neuroscience of Human Capability Formation.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 104(3): 13250-5.

Hedges, L. y A. Nowell (1995). “Sex differences in mental test scores, variability, and numbers of high-scoring individuals.” Science, Vol. 269: 41–45.

Heyneman, S., J. Farrell y M. Sepulveda-Stuardo (1978). “Textbooks and achievement: What we know.” World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 298.

Howell, C., y P. Lundall (2000). “Computers in schools: A national survey of information communication technology in South African schools.” Cape Town: Education Policy Unit, University of Western Cape.

Hoxby, C. (1994). “Do private schools provide competition for public schools?” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 4978.

Hoxby, C. (2000). “Peer effects in the classroom: learning from gender and race variation.” NBER Working Paper 7867.

Hyde, J., E. Fennema y S. Lamon (1990). “Gender differences in mathematics performance: A meta-analysis.” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 107: 139–155.

Jacob, B. A. and Lefgren, L. (2004). “Remedial Education and Student Achievement: A Regression-Discontinuity Analysis.” Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. LXXXVI(1): 226-244.

Jacob, B. A. and Lefgren, L. (2009). “The effect of grade retention on high school completion.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, Vol.1(3): 33-58.

Jacobs, J. (1995). “Gender and academic specialties: trends among college degree recipients during the 1980s.” Sociology of Education, Vol. 68 (2): 81–98.

Jacques, C., B. Brorsen y F. Richter (2000). “Consolidating rural school districts: Potential savings and effects on student achievement.” Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, Vol. 32(3): 573–583.

Jimenez, E., M. Lockheed y V. Paqueo (1991). “The relative efficiency of private and public schools in developing countries.” The World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 6(2): 205-218.

Jimerson, S. (2001). “Meta-analysis of grade retention research: Implications for practice in the 21st century.” School Psychology Review, Vol. 30(3): 420-437.

Karoly, L. A., P. W. Greenwood, S. S. Everingham, J. Hoube, M. R. Kilburn, C. P. Rydell, M. Sanders and J. Chiesa. (1998). Investing in Our Children: What We Know and Don't Know About the Costs and Benefits of Early Childhood Interventions. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.

Keiper, R. y K. Busselle (1996). “The rural educator and stress.” Rural educator, Vol. 17(2): 18–21.

Kiesling, H. (1967). “Measuring a local government service: A study of school districts in New York State.” Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 49(3): 356–367.

Klein, S. (1985). Handbook for Achieving Sex Equity through Education. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Kremer, M. (1995). “Research on schooling: What we know and what we don't. A comment.” World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 10(2): 247-254.

Krueger, A. (2003). “Economic considerations and class size.” Economic Journal, Vol. 113(485): 34-63.

Kyriacou, C. (1980). “Stress, health, and school-teachers: A comparison with other professions.” Cambridge Journal of Education, Vol. 10: 154–159.

Lavy, V. M. Paserman y A. Schlosser (2008). “Inside the black box of ability peer effects: evidence fron variation in the proportion of low achievers in the classroom.” NBER Working Paper 14415.

Lavy, V. y A. Schlosser (2011). “Mechanisms and impacts of gender peer effects at school.” American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, Vol. 3(2): 1–33.

Lazear, E. (2001). “Educational Production.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 116(3): 777-803.

Leeuw and Meijer (eds.) (2008). Handbook of Multilevel Analysis. Springer

Leithwood, K. y D. Jantzi (2009). “A Review of Empirical Evidence About School Size Effects: A Policy Perspective.” Review of Educational Research, Vol. 79 (1): 464-490.

Lerman, R and S. Yitzhaki (1985). “Income Inequality Effects by Income.” The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 67(1): 151-56.

Leuven, E., M. Lindahl, H. Oosterbeek y D. Webbink (2007). “The effect of extra funding for disadvantaged pupils on achievement.” Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 89(4): 721-736.

Lever, J. (1978). “Sex differences in the complexity of children’s play and games.” American Sociological Review, Vol. 43: 471–483.

Lewis, R, S. Romi, X. Qui y Y. Katz (2005). “Teachers’ classroom discipline and student misbehavior in Australia, China and Israel.” Teaching and Teacher Education, Vol. 21: 729–741.

Llach, J. (2006). El desafío de la equidad educativa. Diagnóstico y propuestas. Buenos Aires: Granica.

Llach, J., S. Montoya y F. Roldán (1999). Educación para todos. Buenos Aires: IERAL.

Lockheed, M. y E. Hanushek (1988). “Improving educational efficiency in developing countries: What do we know?” Compare, Vol. 18(1): 21-38.

Machin, S., S. McNally y O. Silva. (2006). “New technology in schools: Is there a payoff?” The Economic Journal, Vol. 117(522): 115-167.

Manacorda, M. (2012). “The Cost of Grade Retention.” Review of Economics and Statistics, 94.

Marshall, J. (2009). “School quality and learning gains in rural Guatemala.” Economics of Education Review, Vol. 28(2): 207-216.

McLanahan, S. y G. Sandefur (1997). Growing up with a single parent: What hurts, what helps. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Metzler, J. y L. Wößmann (2010). “The impact of teacher subject knowledge on student achievement: Evidence from within-teacher within-student variation.” IZA Discussion Paper No. 4999.

Miller, M. y W. Moore (1991). “Private-public school differences in the United States: findings from the second international mathematics study.” International Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 15(5): 433-444.

Neal, D. (1997) “The effects of catholic secondary schooling on educational achievement.” Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 15(1): pp. 98-123.

Niskanen, W. (1998). “Student performance and school district size.” En: W. Niskanen (ed.). Policy analysis and public choice: selected papers by William A. Niskanen. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, pp. 124–134.

Noell, J. (1982). “Public and catholic schools: A reanalysis of ‘public and private schools’.” Sociology of Education, Vol. 55(2-3): 123-132.

OECD (2004). “Lifelong Learning.” Policy Brief, February, Paris.

OECD (2009). PISA Data Analysis Manual: SPSS, Second Edition, PISA, OECD Publishing

OECD (2010) “PISA 2009 Results: What Students Know and Can Do – Students Performance in Reading, Mathematics and Science (Volume I)”. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264091450-en

OECD (2010a) “PISA 2009 Results: Overcoming Social Background – Equity in Learning Opportunities and Outcomes (Volume II)”. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264091504-en

OECD (2010b). “PISA 2009 Results: What Makes a School Successful? – Resources, Policies and Practices (Volume IV).” http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264091559-en

OECD (2011). “Does participation in pre-primary education translate into better learning outcomes at school?” PISA in focus, OECD.

Opdenakker, M. y J. Van Damme (2006). “Differences between secondary schools: A study about school context, group composition, school practice, and school effects with special attention to public and Catholic schools and types of schools.” School Effectiveness and School Improvement, Vol. 17(1): 87-117.

Pallas, A. y K. Alexander (1983). “Sex differences in quantitative SAT performance: New evidence on the differential course-work hypothesis.” American Educational Research Journal, Vol. 20: 165–182.

Peterson, P. y L. Wößmann (2007). “Introduction: schools and the equal opportunity problem." En L. Wößmann y P. Peterson (eds.). Schools and the equal opportunity problem. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press: 3-27.

Pong, S., J. Dronkers y G. Hampden-Thompson (2003). “Family Policies and Children’s School Achievement in Single- Versus Two-Parent Families.” Journal of Marriage and Family, Vol. 65: 681–699.

Raitano, M. y F. Vona (2010). “Peer Heterogeneity, Parental Background and Tracking: Evidence from PISA 2006.” Document de travail de l’ OFCE 23.

Rangvid, B. (2007). “Educational Peer Effects. Quantile Regression Evidence from Denmark with PISA2000 data” Empirical Economics, Vol. 33(2): 359-388.

Riala, K., I. Isohanni, J. Jokelainen, P. Jones y M. Isohanni (2003). “The relationship between childhood family background and educational performance, with special reference to single-parent families: a longitudinal study.” Social Psychology of Education, Vol. 6(4): 349-365.

Rivkin, S., E. Hanushek y J. Kain (2005). “Teachers, Schools and Academic Achievement”. Econometrica, Vol. 73(2): 417-458.

Rouse, C. y A. Krueger (2004). “Putting computerized instruction to the test: A randomized evaluation of a “scientifically based” reading program.” Economics of Education Review, Vol. 23(4): 323-338.

Sánchez Hugalde, A. (2008). “Efectos de la inmigración en el sistema educativo: el caso español.” Tesis doctoral, Universidad de Barcelona.

Sander, W. (1996). “Catholic grade schools and academic achievement.” The Journal of Human Resources, Vol. 31(3): 540-548.

Santos, M. (2007). “Quality of education in Argentina: determinants and distribution using PISA 2000 test scores.” Well-being and Social Policy, Vol. 3(1): 69-95.

Schneeweis, N. y R. Winter-Ebmer (2007). "Peer effects in Austrian schools," Empirical Economics, Springer, vol. 32(2), pages 387-409.

Schütz, G., H. Ursprung, y L. Wößmann (2008). “Education policy and equality of opportunity”. Kyklos, Vol. 61(2): 279–308.

Shleifer, A. (1998). “State versus private ownership.” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 12(4): 133–150.

Shonkoff, J. y D. Phillips (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: the science of early child development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Sirin, S. (2005). “Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research.” Review of Educational Research, Vol. 75(3): 417-453.

Slavin, R. (1990). "Achievement effects of ability grouping in secondary schools: A best-evidence synthesis.” Review of Educational Research, Vol. 60(3): 471-499.

Somers, M., P. McEwan y J. Willms (2004). “How effective are private schools in Latin-America?” Comparative Education Review, Vol. 48(1): 48–69.

Sosa Escudero, W. y M. Marchionni (2000). “Household Structure, Gender and the Economic Determinants of School Attendance in Argentina”. En Poor people in a rich country. Poverty Report for Argentina. The World Bank, volumen 2, background paper N° 7.

Stevans, L. y D. Sessions (2000). “Private/public school choice and student performance revisited.” Education Economics, Vol. 8(2): 169-184.

Taguma, M., M. Kim, G. Wurzburg y F. Kelly (2009). OECD Reviews of Migrant Education: Ireland. OECD Publishing.

Thomas, D. (1991). “Like father, like son: gender differences in household resource allocations.” Universidad de Yale. Yale Economic Growth Center Discussion Paper N° 619, New Heaven.

Thomas, D. y J. Strauss (1997). “Health and wages: evidence of men and women in urban Brazil.” Journal of Econometrics, Vol. 77, N° 1.

Vazquez, E. (2012). “Segregación escolar por nivel socioeconómico. Midiendo el fenómeno y explorando sus determinantes.” Documento de trabajo del CEDLAS N°128.

Walberg, H. y W. Fowler (1987). “Expenditure and size efficiencies of public school districts.” Educational Researcher, Vol. 16(7): 5–13.

Wolter, S. (2003). “Sibling Rivalry: A Six Country Comparison.” IZA Discussion paper N° 734.

Wolter, S. y M. Vellacott (2002). “Sibling rivalry: A look at Switzerland with PISA data.” IZA Discussion paper N° 594.

Wößmann, L. (2003). “Schooling resources, educational institutions, and student performance: The international evidence.” Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 65(2): 117-170.

Wößmann, L. (2005). “Educational production in East Asia: The impact of family background and schooling policies on student performance.” German Economic Review, Vol. 6(3): 331–353.

Wößmann, L. (2008). “How equal are educational opportunities? Family background and student achievement in Europe and the United States.” Zeitschrift für Betriebswirtschaft, Vol. 78(1): 45-70.

Wößmann, L. (2010). “Families, schools and primary-school learning: evidence for Argentina and Colombia in an international perspective.” Applied Economics, Vol. 42(21): 2645-2665.