Work from home trends in European countries

Molina, Jose Alberto and Velilla, Jorge (2025): Work from home trends in European countries.

Abstract

This paper analyzes the evolution of working from home across European countries using data from the European Working Conditions Survey (2005–2021). The study documents a substantial increase in working from home, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, with notable cross-country and gender differences. It also examines how working from home correlates with individual characteristics such as gender, age, education, employment status, occupation, and household composition. We find that self-employment, digital work intensity, and higher education are consistently associated with greater working from home prevalence. Conversely, public sector employment and full-time contracts are negatively related to working from home.

• Item Type: MPRA Paper
• Language: English
• Keywords: work from home; remote work; telework; EWCS data
• Subjects: D - Microeconomics > D0 - General; J - Labor and Demographic Economics > J0 - General > J01 - Labor Economics: General

References

Allen, T. D., Johnson, R. C., Kiburz, K., & Shockley, K. M. (2013). Work-family conflict and flexible work arrangements: Deconstructing flexibility. Personnel Psychology, 6, 345–376.

Andrade, C., & Petiz Lousã, E. (2021). Telework and work–family conflict during COVID-19 lockdown in Portugal: The influence of job-related factors. Administrative Sciences, 11(3), 103.

Athanasiadou, C., & Theriou, G. (2021). Telework: systematic literature review and future research agenda. Heliyon, 7(10), e08165.

Bailey, D. E., & Kurland, N. B. (2002). A review of telework research: Findings, new directions, and lessons for the study of modern work. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23, 383–400.

Blahopoulou, J., Ortiz-Bonnin, S., Montañez-Juan, M., Torrens Espinosa, G., & García-Buades, M. E. (2022). Telework satisfaction, wellbeing and performance in the digital era. Lessons learned during COVID-19 lockdown in Spain. Current Psychology, 41(5), 2507–2520.

Bloom, N., Liang, J., Roberts, J., & Ying, Z. J. (2015). Does working from home work? Evidence from a Chinese experiment. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 130(1), 165–218.

Brindal, E., Ryan, J. C., Kakoschke, N., Golley, S., Zajac, I. T., & Wiggins, B. (2022). Individual differences and changes in lifestyle behaviours predict decreased subjective well-being during COVID-19 restrictions in an Australian sample. Journal of Public Health, 44(2), 450–456.

Ceccato, R., Baldassa, A., Rossi, R., & Gastaldi, M. (2022). Potential long-term effects of Covid-19 on telecommuting and environment: An Italian case-study. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 109, 103401.

Chung, H., & van der Horst, M. (2018). Women’s employment patterns after childbirth and the perceived access to and use of flexitime and teleworking. Human Relations, 71(1), 47–72.

Del Boca, D., Oggero, N., Profeta, P., & Rossi, M. (2020). Women’s and men’s work, housework and childcare, before and during COVID-19. Review of Economics of the Household, 18(4), 1001–1017.

Dockery, A. M., & Bawa, S. (2018). When two worlds collude: Working from home and family functioning in Australia. International Labour Review, 157(4), 609–630.

Duxbury, L., & Halinski, M. (2014). When more is less: An examination of the relationship between hours in telework and role overload. Journal of Prevention, Assessment & Rehabilitation, 48, 91–103.

Edwards, L. N., & Field-Hendrey, E. (2002). Home-based work and women’s labor force decisions. Journal of Labor Economics, 20, 170–200.

Foliano, F., Tonei, V., & Sevilla, A. (2022). Social Restrictions and Well-Being: Disentangling the Mechanisms. SSRN Electronic Journal.

Fujiwara, D., Dolan, P., Lawton, R., Behzadnejad, F., Lagarde, A., Maxwell, C., & Peytrignet, S. (2020). Wellbeing costs of COVID-19 in the UK. Report to the World Health Organization.

Gajendran, R. S., & Harrison, D. A. (2007). The good, the bad, and the unknown about telecommuting: Meta-analysis of psychological mediators and individual consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1524–1541.

Gajendran, R. S., Harrison, D. A., & Delaney-Klinger, K. (2014). Are telecommuters remotely good citizens? Unpacking telecommuting’s effects on performance via i-deals and job resources. Personnel Psychology, 68, 353–393.

Gimenez-Nadal, J. I., Molina, J. A., & Velilla, J. (2020). Work time and well-being for workers at home: Evidence from the American Time Use Survey. International Journal of Manpower, 41(2), 184–206.

Giménez-Nadal, J. I., Molina, J. A., & Velilla, J. (2023). Should we cheer together? Gender differences in instantaneous well-being: an application to COVID-19 lockdowns. Journal of Happiness Studies, 24(2), 529-562.

Giménez-Nadal, J. I., & Velilla, J. (2024). Home-based work, time allocations, and subjective well-being: gender differences in the United Kingdom. Empirica, 51(1), 1-33.

Giménez-Nadal, J. I., Molina, J. A., & Velilla, J. (2024). Work from home, time allocation, and well-being: the impact of lockdowns. Review of Economics of the Household, 23, 505-549.

Golden, T. D. (2006). The role of relationships in understanding telecommuter satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27, 319–340.

Golden, T. D. (2007). Co-workers who telework and the impact on those in the office: Understanding the implications of virtual work for co-worker satisfaction and turnover intentions. Human Relations, 60(11), 1641–1667.

Golden, T. D., & Fromen, A. (2011). Does it matter where your manager works? Comparing managerial work mode (traditional, telework, virtual) across subordinate work experiences and outcomes. Human Relations, 64, 1451–1475.

Hamermesh, D. S. (2020). Life satisfaction, loneliness and togetherness, with an application to Covid-19 lock-downs. Review of Economics of the Household, 18(4), 983–1000.

Kim, J. (2020). Workplace flexibility and parent–child interactions among working parents in the US. Social Indicators Research, 151, 427–469.

Möhring, K., Naumann, E., Reifenscheid, M., Wenz, A., Rettig, T., Krieger, U., & Blom, A. G. (2021). The COVID-19 pandemic and subjective well-being: longitudinal evidence on satisfaction with work and family. European Societies, 23(sup1), S601-S617.

Morganson, V. J., Major, D. A., Oborn, K. L., Verive, J. M., & Heelan, M. P. (2010). Comparing telework locations and traditional work arrangements: Differences in work-life balance support, job satisfaction, and inclusion. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 25, 578–595.

Pabilonia, S. W., & Vernon, V. (2023). Who is doing the chores and childcare in dual-earner couples during the COVID-19 era of working from home? Review of Economics of the Household, 21(2), 519–565.

Restrepo, B. J., & Zeballos, E. (2020). The effect of working from home on major time allocations with a focus on food-related activities. Review of Economics of the Household, 18(4), 1165–1187.

Restrepo, B. J., & Zeballos, E. (2022). Work from home and daily time allocations: evidence from the coronavirus pandemic. Review of Economics of the Household, 20(3), 735–758.

Restrepo, B. J., & Zeballos, E. (2023). Working from Home and Emotional Well-Being during Major Daily Activities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(4), 3616.

Rhee, H. (2008). Home-based telecommuting and commuting behavior. Journal of Urban Economics, 63, 198–216.

Ruiz, M. C., Devonport, T. J., Chen-Wilson, C. H. J., Nicholls, W., Cagas, J. Y., Fernandez-Montalvo, J., & Robazza, C. (2021). A cross-cultural exploratory study of health behaviors and well-being during COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 3897.

Safirova, E. (2002). Telecommuting, traffic congestion, and agglomeration: A general equilibrium model. Journal of Urban Economics, 52, 26–52.

Sampath, S., Saxena, S., & Mokchtarian, L.P. (1996). The effectiveness of telecommuting as a transportation control measure. In Proceedings of the ASCE Urban Transportation Division National Conference on Transportation Planning and Air Quality. Santa Bárbara.

Song, Y., & Gao, J. (2020). Does telework stress employees out? A study on working at home and subjective well-being for wage/salary workers. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(7), 2649–2668.

Sullivan, O., Gershuny, J., Sevilla, A., Foliano, F., Vega-Rapun, M., de Grignon, J. L., Harms, T., & Walthéry, P. (2021). Using time-use diaries to track changing behavior across successive stages of COVID-19 social restrictions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(35), e2101724118.

Wang, X., Kim, S. H., & Mokhtarian, P. L. (2023). Teleworking behavior pre-, during, and expected post- COVID: Identification and empirical description of trajectory types. Travel Behaviour and Society, 33, 100628.

White, P., Christodoulou, G., Mackett, R., Titheridge, H., Thoreau, R., & Polak, J. (2007). The role of telework in Britain: Its implications for the transport system and economic evaluation. In European transport conference. Noordwijkerhout, Netherlands.