What motivates academic scientists to engage in research commercialization: ‘gold’, ‘ribbon’ or ‘puzzle’?

Lam, Alice (2010): What motivates academic scientists to engage in research commercialization: ‘gold’, ‘ribbon’ or ‘puzzle’?

Abstract

This paper employs the three concepts of ‘gold’ (financial rewards), ‘ribbon’ (reputational/career rewards) and ‘puzzle’ (intrinsic satisfaction) to examine the extrinsic and intrinsic aspects of scientists’ motivation for pursuing commercial activities. The study is based on 36 individual interviews and an on-line questionnaire survey of 735 scientists from five major UK research universities. It finds that there is a diversity of motivations for commercial engagement, and that many do so for reputational and intrinsic reasons and that financial rewards play a relatively small part. The paper draws on self-determination theory in social psychology to analyse the relationship between scientists’ value orientations with regard to commercial engagement and their personal motivations. It finds that those with traditional beliefs about the separation of science from commerce are more likely to be extrinsically motivated, using commercialization as a means to obtain resources to support their quest for the ‘ribbon’. In contrast, those identify closely with entrepreneurial norms are intrinsically motivated by the autonomy and ‘puzzle-solving’ involved in applied commercial research while also motivated by the ‘gold’. The study highlights the primacy of scientists’ self motivation, and suggests that a fuller explanation of their commercial behaviour will need to consider a broader mix of motives to include the social and affective aspects of intrinsic motivation. In conclusion, the paper argues that policy to encourage commercial engagement should build on reputational and intrinsic rather than purely financial motivations.

• Item Type: MPRA Paper
• Language: English
• Keywords: Academic scientists; entrepreneurial university; motivation; scientific norms and values; self-determination theory; research commercialization; knowledge transfer
• Subjects: L - Industrial Organization > L2 - Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior; I - Health, Education, and Welfare > I2 - Education and Research Institutions > I23 - Higher Education ; Research Institutions; O - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth > O3 - Innovation ; Research and Development ; Technological Change ; Intellectual Property Rights > O31 - Innovation and Invention: Processes and Incentives

References

Amabile, T. M., Hill, K. G., Hennessey, B. A.,Tighe, E. M., 1994. The Work Preference Inventory: Assessing intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66(5), 750-967.

Ambos, T. C., Makela, K., Birkinshaw, J.,D'Este, P., 2008. When does university research get commercialized? Creating ambidexterity in research institutions. Journal of Management Studies 45(8), 1424-1447.

Andersen, L. B.,Pallesen, T., 2008. "Not just for the money?" How financial incentives affect the number of publications of Danish research institutions. International Public Management Journal 11(1), 28-47.

Audretsch, D.,Stephan, P., 1999. Knowledge spillovers in biotechnology: sources and incentives. Journal of Evolutionary Economics 9(1), 97-107.

Bains, W., 2005. How academics can make (extra) money out of their science. Journal of Commercial Biotechnology 11, 353-363.

Baldini, N., Grimaldi, R.,Sobrero, M., 2007. To patent or not to patent? A survey of Italian inventors on motivations, incentives, and obstacles to university patenting. Scientometrics 70(2), 333-354.

Bok, D. C., 2003. Universities in the Marketplace. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

Box, S.,Cotgrove, S., 1966. Scientific identity, occupational selection, and role strain. The British Journal of Sociology 17(1), 20-28.

Clark, B. R., 1998. Creating Entrepreneurial Universities. Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Colyvas, J., Crow, M., Gelijns, A., Mazzoleni, R., Nelson, R. R., Rosenberg, N.,Sampat, B. N., 2002. How do university inventions get into practice? Management Science 48(1), 61-72.

Coser, R. L., 1966. Role distance, sociological ambivalence, and transitional status systems. The American Journal of Sociology 72(2), 173-187.

Cotgrove, S., 1970. The sociology of science and technology. The British Journal of Sociology 21(1), 1-15.

D'Este, P.,Patel, P., 2007. University-industry linkages in the UK: What are the factors underlying the variety of interactions with industry? Research Policy 36(9), 1295-1313.

Deci, E. L., 1975. Intrinsic Motivation. Plenum, New York.

Deci, E. L., Koestner, R.,Ryan, R. M., 1999. A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin 125(3), 627-668.

Deci, E. L.,Ryan, R. M., 2000. The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination behavior. Psychological Inquiry 11(4), 227-268.

Di Gregorio, D.,Shane, S., 2003. Why do some universities generate more start-ups than others? Research Policy 32(2), 209-227.

DTI, 2000. Excellence and Opportunity: A Science and Innovation Policy for the 21st Century. Department of Trade and Industry, HMSO, London.

Eiduson, B. T., 1962. Scientists: Their Psychological World. Basic Books, New York.

El-Sawad, A., Arnold, J.,Cohen, L., 2004. 'Doublethink': The prevalence and function of contradiction in accounts of organizational life. Human Relations 57(9), 1179-1203.

Etzkowitz, H., 1998. The norms of entrepreneurial science: cognitive effects of the new university-industry linkages. Research Policy 27(8), 823-833.

Fini, R., Grimaldi, R.,Sobrero, M., 2009. Factors fostering academics to start up new ventures: an assessment of Italian founders’ incentives. The Journal of Technology Transfer 34(4), 380-402.

Frey, B. S., 1997. Not Just for the Money. An Economic Theory of Personal Motivation. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham.

Gagne, M.,Deci, E. L., 2005. Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior 26(4), 331-362.

Gieryn, T., 1983. Boundary-work and the demarcation of science from non-science: strains and interests in professional ideologies of scientists. American Sociological Review 48(6), 781-795. Göktepe-Hulten, D.,Mahagaonkar, P., 2010. Inventing and patenting activities of scientists: in the expectation of money or reputation? The Journal of Technology Transfer 35(4), 401-423.

Grant, A. M., 2008. Does intrinsic motivation fuel the prosocial fire? Motivational synergy in predicting persistence, performance, and productivity. Journal of Applied Psychology 93(1), 48-58.

Gustin, B. H., 1973. Charisma, recognition and the motivation of scientists. American Journal of Sociology 78(5), 1119-1133.

Hagstrom, W., 1974. Competition in science. American Sociological Review 39(1), 1-18.

Hagstrom, W. O., 1965. The scientific community. Basic Books, New York.

Henkel, M., 2007. Can academic autonomy survive in the knowledge society? A perspective from Britain. Higher Education Research & Development 26(1), 87 - 99.

Hermanowicz, J., 1998. The presentation of occupational self in science. Qualitative Sociology 21(2), 129-148.

Herzberg, F., 1966. Work and the Nature of Man World Publishing, Cleveland.

Hong, W.,Walsh, J. P., 2009. For money or glory? Commercialization, competition, and secrecy in the entrepreneurial university. Sociological Quarterly 50(1), 145-171.

Hoye, K.,Pries, F., 2009. Repeat commercializers,' the habitual entrepreneurs' of university-industry technology transfer. Technovation 29(10), 682-689.

Jacob, M., 2003. Rethinking science and commodifying knowledge. Policy Futures in Education 1(1), 125-142.

Jain, S., George, G.,Maltarich, M., 2009. Academics or entrepreneurs? Investigating role identity modification of university scientists involved in commercialization activity. Research Policy 38(6), 922-935.

Koestner, R., Losier, G. F., Vallerand, R. J.,Carducci, D., 1996. Identified and introjected forms of political internalization: extending self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 70(5), 1025-1036.

Krabel, S.,Mueller, P., 2009. What drives scientists to start their own company?: An empirical investigation of Max Planck Society scientists. Research Policy 38(6), 947-956.

Lach, S.,Schankerman, M., 2008. Incentives and invention in universities. RAND Journal of Economics 39(2), 403-433.

Lam, A., 2007. Knowledge Networks and Careers: Academic Scientists in Industry-University Links. Journal of Management Studies 44(6), 993-1016.

Lambert, R., 2003. Lambert review of business-university collaboration. HMSO, London.

Latour, B.,Woolgar, S., 1979. Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts. Sage, Beverly Hills.

Levin, S. G.,Stephan, P., E., 1991. Research productivity over the life cycle: evidence for academic scientists. American Economic Review 81(1), 114-32.

Lindenberg, S., 2001. Intrinsic motivation in a new light. Kyklos 54(2-3), 317-342.

Loewenstein, G., 1994. The psychology of creativity: a review and reinterpretation. Psychological Bulletin 116(1), 75-98.

Mallon, M., Duberley, J.,Cohen, L., 2005. Careers in public sector science: orientations and implications. R&D Management 35(4), 395-407.

Markman, G. D., Gianiodis, P. T., Phan, P. H.,Balkin, D. B., 2004. Entrepreneurship from the ivory tower: Do incentive systems matter? Journal of Technology Transfer 29(3-4), 353-364.

Markman, G. D., Siegel, D. S.,Wright, M., 2008. Research and technology commercialization. Journal of Management Studies 45(8), 1401-1423.

Merton, R., 1957. Priorities in scientific discovery: a chapter in the sociology of science. American Sociological Review 22(6), 635-659.

Merton, R. K., 1973. The sociology of science: theoretical and empirical investigations. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Merton, R. K.,Barber, E., 1963. Sociological ambivalence. In:Tiryakian, E.A.. Sociological Theory, Values and Sociocultural Changes.The Free Press, Glencoe, pp. 91-120.

Meyer-Krahmer, F.,Schmoch, U., 1998. Science-based technologies: university-industry interactions in four fields. Research Policy 27, 835-851.

Mitroff, I., I., 1974. Norms and counter-norms in a select group of the Apollo Moon Scientists: a case study of the ambivalence of scientists. American Sociological Review 39(4), 579-595.

Moorman, R. H.,Podsakoff, P. M., 1992. A metaanalytic review and empirical-test of the potential confounding effects of social desirability response sets in organizational behavior research. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 65(2), 131-149.

Mulkay, M. J.,Turner, B. S., 1971. Over-production of personnel and innovation in three social settings. Sociology 5(1), 47-61.

Murray, F., 2006. The Oncomouse that roared: resistance and accommodation to patenting in academic science. Unpublished manuscript, Cambridge, MA, MIT Sloan School of Management.

Osterloh, M., 2006. Human resources management and knowledge creation. In: Ichijo, K. and Nonaka, I. (Eds.) Knowledge Creation and Management. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 158-175.

Owen-Smith, J., 2003. From separate systems to a hybrid order: accumulative advantage across public and private science research one universities. Research Policy 32(6), 1081-1104.

Owen-Smith, J.,Powell, W., 2001. Careers and contradictions: faculty responses to the transformation of knowledge and its uses in the life sciences. Research in the Sociology of Work 10, 109-140.

Owen-Smith, J.,Powell, W., 2001. To patent or not: faculty decisions and institutional success at technology transfer. Journal of Technology Transfer 26(1-2), 99-114.

Renault, C. S., 2006. Academic capitalism and university incentives for faculty entrepreneurship. Journal of Technology Transfer 31(2), 227-239.

Rossman, J., 1931. The motives of inventors. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 45(3), 522-528.

Ryan, R. M., 1993. Agency and organization: Intrinsic motivation, autonomy and the self in psychological development. In: Jacobs, J. (Ed.) Nebraska symposium on motivation: Developmental perspectives on motivation. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, pp.1-56.

Ryan, R. M., 1995. Psychological needs and the facilitation of integrative processes. Journal of Personality 63(3), 397-427.

Ryan, R. M.,Deci, E. L., 2000. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology 25(1), 54-67.

Sachau, D. A., 2007. Resurrecting the motivation-hygiene theory: Herzberg and the positive psychology movement. Human Resource Development Review 6(4), 377-393.

Seligman, M. E.,Csikszentmihalyi, M., 2000. Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist 55(1), 5-14.

Shane, S., Locke, E. A.,Collins, C. J., 2003. Entrepreneurial motivation. Human Resource Management Review 13(2), 257-279.

Shinn, T.,Lamy, E., 2006. Paths of commercial knowledge: Forms and consequences of university-enterprise synergy in scientist-sponsored firms. Research Policy 35(10), 1465-1476.

Siegel, D. S., Wright, M.,Lockett, A., 2007. The rise of entrepreneurial activity at universities: organizational and societal implications. Industrial and Corporate Change 16(4), 489-504.

Slaughter, S., 2001 "Professional values and the allure of the market." Academe DOI: http://firgoa.usc.es/drupal/node/28046.

Slaughter, S.,Leslie, L., 1997. Academic Capitalism: Politics, Policies and the Entrepreneurial University. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Slaughter, S.,Rhoades, G., 2004. Academic Capitalism and the New Economy: Markets, State, and Higher Education. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

Stephan, P., 1996. The economics of science. Journal of Economic Literature 34(3), 1199-1235.

Stephan, P., E.,Everhart, S., S., 1998. The changing rewards to science: the case of biotechnology. Small Business Economics 10(2), 141-151.

Stephan, P. E.,Levin, S. G., 1992. Striking the Mother Lode in Science : The Importance of Age, Place, and Time. Oxford University Press, New York.

Thursby, J. G., Jensen, R.,Thursby, M. C., 2001. Objectves, characteristics and outcomes of university licensing: A survey of major U.S. universities. Journal of Technology Transfer 26(1-2), 59-72.

Vallas, S. P.,Lee Kleinman, D., 2008. Contradiction, convergence and the knowledge economy: the confluence of academic and commercial biotechnology. Socio-Economic Review 6(2), 283-311.

Zucker, L. G., Darby, M. R.,Brewer, M. B., 1998. Intellectual human capital and the birth of U.S. biotechnology enterprises. The American Economic Review 88(1), 290-306.