Reviewing the 17 Sustainable Development Goals: Importance and Progress

Halkos, George and Gkampoura, Eleni-Christina (2021): Reviewing the 17 Sustainable Development Goals: Importance and Progress.

Abstract

The United Nations introduced the 17 Sustainable Development Goals in 2015, aiming to tackle economic, social and environmental problems that exist in the world and to promote the concept of sustainability and sustainable development. This paper provides a comprehensive literature review regarding the background of sustainable development and each one of the 17 SDGs; an in-depth analysis of the problems addressed in each goal is provided and these problems’ impacts in the world are identified. The importance of achieving each goal is highlighted, while recent data regarding the targets included in each goal are provided, as well as the mean changes of these data for the past few years, based on a trend analysis that we performed. An evaluation of the achievement of various targets is discussed; we highlight the need of improvement of various SDGs’ progress, including the 4th, 11th and 13th SDG.

• Item Type: MPRA Paper
• Language: English
• Keywords: Sustainable Development Goals; SDGs progress; sustainability.
• Subjects: I - Health, Education, and Welfare > I3 - Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty > I31 - General Welfare, Well-Being; O - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth > O4 - Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity > O44 - Environment and Growth; Q - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics ; Environmental and Ecological Economics > Q0 - General > Q01 - Sustainable Development; Q - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics ; Environmental and Ecological Economics > Q5 - Environmental Economics > Q56 - Environment and Development ; Environment and Trade ; Sustainability ; Environmental Accounts and Accounting ; Environmental Equity ; Population Growth; Q - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics ; Environmental and Ecological Economics > Q5 - Environmental Economics > Q58 - Government Policy

References

Abas, N., Kalair, A., & Khan, N. (2015). Review of fossil fuels and future energy technologies. Futures, 69, 31-49.

Acemoglu, D. (2012). Introduction to economic growth. Journal of Economic Theory, 147(2), 545-550.

Adams Jr, R. H. (2004). Economic growth, inequality and poverty: estimating the growth elasticity of poverty. World Development, 32(12), 1989-2014.

Ahmed, A. U., Hill, R. V., Smith, L. C., Wiesmann, D. M., Frankenberger, T., Gulati, K., Quabili, W., & Yohannes, Y. (2007). The world's most deprived: Characteristics and causes of extreme poverty and hunger (Vol. 43). Intl Food Policy Res Inst.

Akenji, L., & Bengtsson, M. (2014). Making sustainable consumption and production the core of sustainable development goals. Sustainability, 6(2), 513-529.

Al-Zu’bi, M., Vesela Radovic, M. A. Z. B., & Radovic, V. (2018). SDG11 and the Associated Challenges to Implementation', SDG11–Sustainable Cities and Communities: Towards Inclusive, Safe, and Resilient Settlements (Concise Guides to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals) (pp. 21-76). Emerald Publishing Limited.

Anyanwu, J. C., & Anyanwu, J. C. (2017). The key drivers of poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa and what can be done about it to achieve the poverty sustainable development goal. Asian Journal of Economic Modelling, 5(3), 297-317.

Arcaya, M. C., Arcaya, A. L., & Subramanian, S. V. (2015). Inequalities in health: definitions, concepts, and theories. Global Health Action, 8(1), 27106.

Armeanu, D. Ş., Vintilă, G., & Gherghina, Ş. C. (2017). Does renewable energy drive sustainable economic growth? multivariate panel data evidence for EU-28 countries. Energies, 10(3), 381.

Apel, H. (2020). Inequality in development: the 2030 Agenda, SDG 10 and the role of redistribution. Real-World Economics Review, 228.

Bai, Z. G., Dent, D. L., Olsson, L., & Schaepman, M. E. (2008). Proxy global assessment of land degradation. Soil Use and Management, 24(3), 223-234.

Barber, J. (2007). Mapping the movement to achieve sustainable production and consumption in North America. Journal of Cleaner Production, 15(6), 499-512.

Bari, A. (2017). Our oceans and the blue economy: Opportunities and challenges. Procedia Engineering, 194, 5-11.

Bartram, J., Lewis, K., Lenton, R., & Wright, A. (2005). Focusing on improved water and sanitation for health. The Lancet, 365(9461), 810-812.

Behrman, J., Alderman, H., & Hoddinott, J. (2004). Hunger and malnutrition. Global Crises, Global Solutions, 363, 420.

Bernhardt, J. R., & Leslie, H. M. (2013). Resilience to climate change in coastal marine ecosystems. Annual Review of Marine Science.

Bibri, S. E., & Krogstie, J. (2017). Smart sustainable cities of the future: An extensive interdisciplinary literature review. Sustainable Cities and Society, 31, 183-212.

Blaikie, P., & Brookfield, H. (2015). Land degradation and society. Routledge.

Bolaji-Adio, A. (2015). The Challenge of Measuring SDG 16. European Centre for Development Policy Management, 175.

Bonan, G. B. (2008). Forests and climate change: forcings, feedbacks, and the climate benefits of forests. Science, 320(5882), 1444-1449.

Brand-Correa, L. I., & Steinberger, J. K. (2017). A framework for decoupling human need satisfaction from energy use. Ecological Economics, 141, 43-52.

Bull, B., & McNeill, D. (2019). From market multilateralism to governance by goal setting: SDGs and the changing role of partnerships in a new global order. Business and Politics, 21(4), 464-486.

Bynner, J., Schuller, T., & Feinstein, L. (2003). Wider benefits of education: skills, higher education and civic engagement. Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, 49(3), 341-361.

Cardinale, B. J., Duffy, J. E., Gonzalez, A., Hooper, D. U., Perrings, C., Venail, P., Narwani, A., Mace, G. M., Tilman, D., Wardle, D. A., Kinzig, A. P., Daily, G. C., Loreau, M., Grace, J. B., Larigauderie, A., Srivastava, D. & Naeem, S. (2012). Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity. Nature, 486(7401), 59-67.

Castro, J. E., Heller, L., & Heller, L. (2012). Water and sanitation services: public policy and management. Earthscan.

Cedergren, A. (2013). Designing resilient infrastructure systems: a case study of decision-making challenges in railway tunnel projects. Journal of Risk Research, 16(5), 563-582.

Chakravarty, S., Ghosh, S. K., Suresh, C. P., Dey, A. N., & Shukla, G. (2012). Deforestation: causes, effects and control strategies. In Global perspectives on sustainable forest management. IntechOpen.

Chan, S., Weitz, N., Persson, Å., & Trimmer, C. (2018). SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production. A Review of Research Needs. Stockholm Environment Institute.

Costanza, R., Daly, L., Fioramonti, L., Giovannini, E., Kubiszewski, I., Mortensen, L. F., Pickett, K. E., Ragnarsdottir, K. V., De Vogli, R. & Wilkinson, R. (2016). Modelling and measuring sustainable wellbeing in connection with the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Ecological Economics, 130, 350-355.

Coulter, P. B. (2019). Measuring inequality: A methodological handbook. Routledge.

Curren, R. (2009). Education as a social right in a diverse society. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 43(1), 45-56.

D’Aiglepierre, R., & Wagner, L. (2013). Aid and universal primary education. Economics of Education Review, 37, 95-112.

Dasandi, N., & Mikhaylov, S. J. (2019). AI for SDG-16 on Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions: Tracking Progress and Assessing Impact.

Devisscher, T., Konijnendijk, C., Nesbitt, L., Lenhart, J., Salbitano, F., Cheng, Z. C., Lwasa, S., & van den Bosch, M. (2020). SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities–Impacts on Forests and Forest-Based Livelihoods. Sustainable Development Goals: Their Impacts on Forests and People, 349. Cambridge University Press.

Díaz, S., Fargione, J., Chapin III, F. S., & Tilman, D. (2006). Biodiversity loss threatens human well-being. PLoS Biol, 4(8), e277.

Diz, D., Morgera, E., & Wilson, M. (2019). Marine policy special issue: SDG synergies for sustainable fisheries and poverty alleviation. Marine Policy, 110.

Doni, F., Gasperini, A., & Soares, J. T. (2020). What is the SDG 13?. In SDG13–Climate Action: Combating Climate Change and its Impacts. Emerald Publishing Limited.

Doyle, T. (1998). Sustainable development and Agenda 21: the secular bible of global free markets and pluralist democracy. Third World Quarterly, 19(4), 771-786.

Du Preez, P. (2012). The human right to education, the ethical responsibility of curriculum, and the irony in ‘safe spaces’. In Safe Spaces (pp. 51-62). Brill Sense.

FAO. (2020a). Prevalence of severe food insecurity in the total population (percent). Retrieved from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Available online http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FS (accessed on November 5th, 2020).

FAO. (2020b). Prevalence of undernourishment (% of population). Retrieved from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Available online http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FS (accessed on November 5th, 2020).

Frey, D. F., & MacNaughton, G. (2016). A human rights lens on full employment and decent work in the 2030 sustainable development agenda. SAGE Open, 6(2), 2158244016649580.

Fukuda-Parr, S. (2016). From the Millennium Development Goals to the Sustainable Development Goals: shifts in purpose, concept, and politics of global goal setting for development. Gender & Development, 24(1), 43-52.

Gasper, D. (2007). Human well-being: concepts and conceptualizations. In Human well-being (pp. 23-64). Palgrave Macmillan, London.

Gardoni, P., & Murphy, C. (2020). Society-based design: promoting societal well-being by designing sustainable and resilient infrastructure. Sustainable and Resilient Infrastructure, 5(1-2), 4-19.

Guevara, S., & Julián, I. P. (2019). Sustainable consumption and production: A crucial goal for sustainable development—Reflections on the Spanish SDG implementation report. Journal of Sustainability Research, 1(2).

Hackl, A. (2018). Mobility equity in a globalized world: Reducing inequalities in the sustainable development agenda. World Development, 112, 150-162.

Hagenaars, A., & De Vos, K. (1988). The definition and measurement of poverty. Journal of Human Resources, 211-221.

Hagenaars, A. J. (2014). The perception of poverty. Elsevier.

Halkos, G. E. (1992). Economic perspectives of the acid rain problem in Europe (Doctoral dissertation, University of York).

Halkos G.E. & Managi, S. (2017). Recent advances in empirical analysis on growth and environment: introduction. Environment and Development Economics 22 (6), 649-657

Halkos G.E & Paizanos, E. (2015). Environmental Macroeconomics: A critical literature review and future empirical research directions. MPRA Paper No. 67432

Halkos G.E. & Tzeremes, N.G. (2014). Measuring the effect of Kyoto protocol agreement on countries’ environmental efficiency in CO2 emissions: an application of conditional full frontiers. Journal of Productivity Analysis 41 (3), 367-382.

Hallegatte, S., Rentschler, J., & Rozenberg, J. (2019). LIFELINES: The resilient infrastructure opportunity. World Bank Group.

Hansmann, R., Mieg, H. A., & Frischknecht, P. (2012). Principal sustainability components: empirical analysis of synergies between the three pillars of sustainability. International Journal of Sustainable Development & World Ecology, 19(5), 451-459.

Harris, J. M. (2000). Basic principles of sustainable development. Global Development and Environment Insitute, 21-41.

Hess, P. N. (2013). Economic growth and sustainable development. Routledge.

Hoddinott, J., Rosegrant, M., & Torero, M. (2012). Hunger and malnutrition. Copenhagen Consensus 2012.

Holthus, P., & Council, M. A. (1999). Sustainable development of oceans and coasts: the role of the private sector. In Natural resources forum (Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 169-176). London: Butterworths.

Hope Sr, K. R. (2019). Peace, justice and inclusive institutions: overcoming challenges to the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 16. Global Change, Peace & Security, 32(1), 57-77.

Horton, S., Alderman, H., & Rivera, J. A. (2008). The challenge of hunger and malnutrition. Copenhagen Consensus, 3-4.

Höök, M., & Tang, X. (2013). Depletion of fossil fuels and anthropogenic climate change—A review. Energy Policy, 52, 797-809.

Huang, Y., & Quibria, M. G. (2015). The global partnership for sustainable development. In Natural Resources Forum (Vol. 39, No. 3-4, pp. 157-174).

Huff, A., Dowd, C., Okech, A., Muteru, A., Shahrokh, T., Zadi Zadi, P., Mahama Alidu, S. & Allouche, J. (2016). Violence and Violence Reduction Efforts in Kenya, Uganda, Ghana and Ivory Coast: Insights and Lessons towards Achieving SDG 16 (No. IDS Evidence Report; 210). IDS.

Hunger Task Force. (2003). Halving Hunger by 2015: A Framework for Action, Interim Report, Millennium Project. UNDP. New York.

IEA. (2020). Data and statistics. Available online: https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics (accessed on November 14th, 2020).

ILO. (2020). Decent Work, the key to poverty reduction. Retrieved from the International Labour Organization. Available online: (accessed on November 9th, 2020) https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/poverty/WCMS_396219/lang--en/index.htm

ILOSTAT. (2020). Statistics on social protection. Retrieved from the International Labour Organization. Available online: https://ilostat.ilo.org/topics/social-protection/ (accessed on November 18th, 2020).

IPCC. (2014a). Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L.White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1-32.

IPCC. (2014b). Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Edenhofer, O., R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel and J.C. Minx (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Joss, S. (2015). Sustainable cities: Governing for urban innovation. Macmillan International Higher Education.

Justino, P., & Martorano, B. (2016). 3. Drivers and dynamics of inequalities worldwide (an introduction to Part I). World social science report, 2016: Challenging inequalities; pathways to a just world, 34.

Kanagawa, M., & Nakata, T. (2008). Assessment of access to electricity and the socio-economic impacts in rural areas of developing countries. Energy Policy, 36(6), 2016-2029.

Kanbur, R., Rhee, C., & Zhuang, J. (2014). Inequality in Asia and the Pacific: Trends, drivers, and policy implications. Routledge.

Kim, T. (2015). Towards a Transformative Global Partnership for a Post-2015 Development Era. In issue brief for the United Nations Development Cooperation Forum (UNDCF) High-Level Symposium, Incheon, Republic of Korea.

Klopp, J. M., & Petretta, D. L. (2017). The urban sustainable development goal: Indicators, complexity and the politics of measuring cities. Cities, 63, 92-97.

Komarulzaman, A., Smits, J., & de Jong, E. (2017). Clean water, sanitation and diarrhoea in Indonesia: Effects of household and community factors. Global Public Health, 12(9), 1141-1155.

Kuhn, H. (2019). Reducing Inequality Within and Among Countries: Realizing SDG 10—A Developmental Perspective. Sustainable Development Goals and Human Rights, 5, 137.

Kumar, S., Kumar, N., & Vivekadhish, S. (2016). Millennium development goals (MDGS) to sustainable development goals (SDGS): Addressing unfinished agenda and strengthening sustainable development and partnership. Indian journal of community medicine: official publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine, 41(1), 1.

Kynčlová, P., Upadhyaya, S., & Nice, T. (2020). Composite index as a measure on achieving Sustainable Development Goal 9 (SDG-9) industry-related targets: The SDG-9 index. Applied Energy, 265, 114755.

Lambert, J. G., Hall, C. A., Balogh, S., Gupta, A., & Arnold, M. (2014). Energy, EROI and quality of life. Energy Policy, 64, 153-167.

Le Heron, R., & Hayter, R. (2018). Knowledge, Industry and Environment: Institutions and Innovation in Territorial Perspective: Institutions and Innovation in Territorial Perspective. Routledge.

Lorber, J. (2001). Gender inequality. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.

Lounis, Z., & McAllister, T. P. (2016). Risk-based decision making for sustainable and resilient infrastructure systems. Journal of Structural Engineering, 142(9), F4016005.

Lovelock, J. E., & Rapley, C. G. (2007). Ocean pipes could help the Earth to cure itself. Nature, 449(7161), 403-403.

Martos, A., Pacheco-Torres, R., Ordóñez, J., & Jadraque-Gago, E. (2016). Towards successful environmental performance of sustainable cities: Intervening sectors. A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 57, 479-495.

Mazor, T., Doropoulos, C., Schwarzmueller, F., Gladish, D. W., Kumaran, N., Merkel, K., Di Marco, M. & Gagic, V. (2018). Global mismatch of policy and research on drivers of biodiversity loss. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 2(7), 1071-1074.

McGillivray, M., & Clarke, M. (2006). Human well-being: Concepts and measures. Understanding human well-being, 3-16.

Mensah, J. (2019). Sustainable development: Meaning, history, principles, pillars, and implications for human action: Literature review. Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1), 1653531.

Montgomery, M. A., & Elimelech, M. (2007). Water and sanitation in developing countries: including health in the equation. Environmental Science and Technology.

Murray, S. (2006). Poverty and health. Cmaj, 174(7), 923-923.

Nkonya, E., Mirzabaev, A., & Von Braun, J. (2016). Economics of land degradation and improvement–a global assessment for sustainable development (p. 686). Springer Nature.

Norwegian Ministry of Environment. (1994). Report of the Sustainable Consumption Symposium. Oslo.

Nussbaumer, P., Bazilian, M., & Modi, V. (2012). Measuring energy poverty: Focusing on what matters. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(1), 231-243.

Oestreich, J. E. (2018). SDG 10: Reduce inequality in and among countries. Social Alternatives, 37(1).

Ojiambo, P. O. (2009). Quality of education and its role in national development: A case study of Kenya’s educational reforms. Kenya Studies Review, 1(1), 133-149.

Opoku, A. (2019). Biodiversity and the built environment: Implications for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Resources, conservation and recycling, 141, 1-7.

Palmer, N. T. (2012). The importance of economic growth. CPA Ireland.

Pandey, U. C., Kumar, C., Ayanore, M., & Shalaby, H. R. (2020). SDG10–Reduce Inequality Within and Among Countries. Emerald Group Publishing.

Panwar, N. L., Kaushik, S. C., & Kothari, S. (2011). Role of renewable energy sources in environmental protection: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(3), 1513-1524.

Pearce, D. & Moran, D. (1994). The value of biodiversity. Microbial Diversity and Bioprospecting, 469-475.

Philippart, C. J., Anadón, R., Danovaro, R., Dippner, J. W., Drinkwater, K. F., Hawkins, S. J., Oguz, T., O’Sullivan, G. & Reid, P. C. (2011). Impacts of climate change on European marine ecosystems: observations, expectations and indicators. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 400(1-2), 52-69.

Purvis, B., Mao, Y., & Robinson, D. (2018). Three pillars of sustainability: in search of conceptual origins. Sustainability Science, 14(3), 681-695.

Ranis, G., Stewart, F., & Ramirez, A. (2000). Economic growth and human development. World Development, 28(2), 197-219.

Raphael, D. (2013). The politics of poverty: Definitions and explanations. Social Alternatives, 32(1), 5.

Ridgeway, C. L. (2011). Framed by gender: How gender inequality persists in the modern world. Oxford University Press.

Rosen, M. A. (2017). Sustainable development: A vital quest. European Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 1(1), 2.

Ruckelshaus, M., Doney, S. C., Galindo, H. M., Barry, J. P., Chan, F., Duffy, J. E., English, C. A., Gaines, S. D., Grebmeier, J. M., Hollowed, A. B., Knowlton, N., Polovina, J., Rabalais, N. N., Sydeman, W. J. & Talley, L. D. (2013). Securing ocean benefits for society in the face of climate change. Marine Policy, 40, 154-159.

Salomon, J. A., Mathers, C. D., Chatterji, S., Sadana, R., Ustun, T. B., & Murray, C. J. (2003). Quantifying individual levels of health: definitions, concepts and measurement issues. Health Systems Performance Assessment: Debate, Methods, and Empiricism, 301-18.

Sanchez Rodriguez, R., Ürge-Vorsatz, D., & Barau, A. S. (2018). Sustainable Development Goals and climate change adaptation in cities. Nature Climate Change, 8(3), 181-183.

Saxena, S. (2019). Sustainable Development Goal 9: Building resilient infrastructure, sustainable industrialization and fostering innovation. ABS International Journal of Management.

Sayer, J., Sheil, D., Galloway, G., Riggs, R. A., Mewett, G., MacDicken, K. G., Arts, B., Boedhihartono, A. K., Langston, J. & Edwards, D. P. (2019). SDG 15: life on land–The Central role of forests in sustainable development. Sustainable Development Goals: Their Impacts on Forests and People. Cambridge University Press.

Scheraga, J. D., & Grambsch, A. E. (1998). Risks, opportunities, and adaptation to climate change. Climate Research, 11(1), 85-95.

Schröder, P., Antonarakis, A. S., Brauer, J., Conteh, A., Kohsaka, R., Uchiyama, Y., & Pacheco, P. (2020). SDG 12: responsible consumption and production–Potential Benefits and impacts on forests and livelihoods. Sustainable Development Goals: Their Impacts on Forests and People, 386. Cambridge University Press.

Seguino, S. (2000). Gender inequality and economic growth: A cross-country analysis. World Development, 28(7), 1211-1230.

Sen, A. (2001). The many faces of gender inequality. New Republic, 35-39.

Sigerist, H. E. (1941). Medicine and Human Welfare. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Sliney, A. (1977). Global health partnerships. Mathematics for Health Professionals, 103.

Smil, V. (2019). Energy in world history. Routledge.

Strassburg, B. B., Kelly, A., Balmford, A., Davies, R. G., Gibbs, H. K., Lovett, A., Miles, L., Orme, C. D. L., Price, J., Turner, R. K. & Rodrigues, A. S. (2010). Global congruence of carbon storage and biodiversity in terrestrial ecosystems. Conservation Letters, 3(2), 98-105.

Struble, M. B., & Aomari, L. L. (2003). Position of the World Dietetic Association: Addressing world hunger, malnutrition, and food insecurity. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 103(8), 1046.

Tejaswi, G. (2007). Manual on deforestation, degradation, and fragmentation using remote sensing and GIS. MAR-SFM. ROME, ITALY.

Thompson, T., Sobsey, M., & Bartram, J. (2003). Providing clean water, keeping water clean: an integrated approach. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 13(sup1), S89-S94.

Tortajada, C., & Biswas, A. K. (2018). Achieving universal access to clean water and sanitation in an era of water scarcity: strengthening contributions from academia. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 34, 21-25.

Tov, W. (2018). Well-being concepts and components. Handbook of subjective well-being (pp.1-15). Salt Lake City, UT: Noba Scholar.

Tseng, M. L., Tan, R. R., & Siriban-Manalang, A. B. (2013). Sustainable consumption and production for Asia: sustainability through green design and practice. Journal of Cleaner Production, 40, 1-5.

Tukker, A., Emmert, S., Charter, M., Vezzoli, C., Sto, E., Andersen, M. M., Geerken, T., Tischner, U. & Lahlou, S. (2008). Fostering change to sustainable consumption and production: an evidence based view. Journal of Cleaner Production, 16(11), 1218-1225.

Tyrväinen, L., Pauleit, S., Seeland, K., & de Vries, S. (2005). Benefits and uses of urban forests and trees. In Urban forests and trees (pp. 81-114). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

UNCED. (1992). Agenda 21: programme of action for sustainable development, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. New York: United Nations.

UNCSD. (2012). The future we want. Outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development. 20-22 June 2012, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

UN DESA. (2015). Concepts of Inequality. Development Issues No.1. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Available online: www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wess/wess_dev_issues/dsp_policy_01.pdf (accessed on November 11th, 2020).

United Nations. (1992). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. United Nations, New York.

United Nations. (2015a). Millennium Development Goals | UNDP. Available online: https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sdgoverview/mdg_goals.html (accessed on November 2nd, 2020).

United Nations. (1972). Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. 5-16 June 1972, Stockholm, Sweden. New York: United Nations.

United Nations. (2020a). Sustainable Development Goals Progress Chart 2020. Available online: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/26727SDG_Chart_2020.pdf (accessed on November 18th, 2020).

United Nations. (2020b). The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2020. Available online: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2020/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2020.pdf (accessed on November 19th, 2020).

United Nations. (2015b). The 17 Goals. Available online: https://sdgs.un.org/goals (accessed on November 2nd, 2020).

United Nations. (2015c). United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Available online: https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ (accessed on November 2nd, 2020)

United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. At http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html (accessed on November 6th, 2020).

UNODC. (2020). Victims of intentional homicide, 1990-2018. Retrieved from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Available online: https://dataunodc.un.org/content/data/homicide/homicide-rate (accessed on November 16th, 2020).

UNSD. (2020). Indicator 5.2.1: Proportion of ever-partnered women and girls subjected to physical and or sexual violence by a current or former intimate partner in the previous 12 months by age (percent). Retrieved from United Nations Statistics Division. Available online: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/ (accessed on November 8th, 2020).

UNSD. (2020). Indicator 5.3.1: Proportion of women aged 20-24 years who were married or in a union before age 15 (percent). Retrieved from United Nations Statistics Division. Available online: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/ (accessed on November 8th, 2020).

UNSD. (2020). Indicator 12.2.1: Material footprint per capita, by type of raw material (tonnes). Retrieved from United Nations Statistics Division. Available online: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/ (accessed on November 13th, 2020).

UNSD. (2020). Indicator 12.2.2: Domestic material consumption per capita, by type of raw material (tonnes). Retrieved from United Nations Statistics Division. Available online: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/ (accessed on November 13th, 2020).

UNSD. (2020). Indicator 13.1.1: Number of deaths and missing persons attributed to disasters per 100,000 population (number). Retrieved from United Nations Statistics Division. Available online: https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/database/ (accessed on November 13th, 2020).

Vallejo, L., & Mullan, M. (2017). Climate-resilient infrastructure: Getting the policies right. OECD.

Van der Berg, A. (2018). 11 The Pursuit of SDG 11 Through the Lens of Integrated Development Planning. The Globalisation of Urban Governance.

Von Geibler, J., Piwowar, J., & Greven, A. (2019). The SDG-Check: Guiding Open Innovation towards Sustainable Development Goals. Technology Innovation Management Review, 9(3), 20-37.

WCED. (1987). Our common future. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wesley, H., Tittle, V., & Seita, A. (2016). No health without peace: why SDG 16 is essential for health. The Lancet, 388(10058), 2352-2353.

WHO. (1946). Preamble to the constitution of the World Health Organization as adopted by the International Health Conference (adopted on June 19–22, 1946; signed on July 22, 1946 and entered into force on April 7, 1948). New York: WHO.

Wiesmann, D., Von Braun, J., & Feldbrügge, T. (2000). An international nutrition index–Successes and failures in addressing hunger and malnutrition. ZEF–Discussion Papers on Development Policy, (26).

Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2002). A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 699.

World Bank. (2020). Access to electricity (% of population). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS (accessed on November 8th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Annualized average growth rate in per capita real survey mean consumption or income, bottom 40% of population (%). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.SPR.PC40.ZG (accessed on November 11th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). CO2 emissions (kt). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.KT (accessed on November 13th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). CO2 emissions from manufacturing industries and construction (% of total fuel combustion). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.CO2.MANF.ZS (accessed on November 10th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Forest area (% of land area). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS (accessed on November 14th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). GDP per capita growth (annual %). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.KD.ZG (accessed on November 9th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Individuals using the Internet (% of population). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.ZS (accessed on November 16th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Informal payments to public officials (% of firms). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IC.FRM.CORR.ZS (accessed on November 16th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Manufacturing, value added (% of GDP). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.IND.MANF.ZS (accessed on November 10th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Maternal mortality ratio (modeled estimate, per 100,000 live births). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT (accessed on November 5th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Mortality rate, neonatal (per 1,000 live births). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.DYN.NMRT (accessed on November 5th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Literacy rate, youth total (% of people ages 15-24). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.ZS (accessed on November 6th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). People using safely managed drinking water services (% of population). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.H2O.SMDW.ZS (accessed on November 8th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). People using safely managed sanitation services (% of population). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.SMSS.ZS (accessed on November 8th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). PM2.5 air pollution, mean annual exposure (micrograms per cubic meter). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.PM25.MC.M3?view=chart (accessed on November 11th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Population living in slums (% of urban population). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.SLUM.UR.ZS (accessed on November 11th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Poverty headcount ratio at $1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.DDAY (accessed on November 4th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC (accessed on November 4th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Proportion of people living below 50 percent of median income (%). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.DST.50MD (accessed on November 11th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Renewable energy consumption (% of total final energy consumption). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.FEC.RNEW.ZS (accessed on November 8th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Research and development (% of GDP). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS (accessed on November 10th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Revenue, excluding grants (% of GDP). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GC.REV.XGRT.GD.ZS (accessed on November 16th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). School enrollment, primary (% net). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.NENR (accessed on November 6th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). School enrollment, secondary (% net). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.SEC.NENR (accessed on November 6th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Tariff rate, applied, weighted mean, all products (%). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/TM.TAX.MRCH.WM.AR.ZS (accessed on November 16th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Terrestrial protected areas (% of total land area). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ER.LND.PTLD.ZS (accessed on November 14th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS (accessed on November 9th, 2020).

World Bank. (2020). Urban population (% of total population). Retrieved from The World Bank Data. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS (accessed on November 11th, 2020).

Wright, G., Schmidt, S., Rochette, J., Shackeroff, J., Unger, S., Waweru, Y. & Müller, A. (2017). Partnering for a sustainable ocean: The role of regional ocean governance in implementing SDG14. PROG: IDDRI, IASS, TMG & UN Environment.

WSSD. (2002). Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development and Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development. 26 August-4 September 2002, Johannesburg, South Africa. New York: United Nations Department of Public Information.

Yigitcanlar, T., & Dizdaroglu, D. (2015). Ecological approaches in planning for sustainable cities: A review of the literature. Global Journal of Environmental Science and Management, 1(2), 159-188.

Zhenmin, L., & Espinosa, P. (2019). Tackling climate change to accelerate sustainable development. Nature Climate Change, 9(7), 494-496.