Cultural Roots of Entrepreneurship

Kleinhempel, Johannes and Klasing, Mariko and Beugelsdijk, Sjoerd (2022): Cultural Roots of Entrepreneurship. Published in: Organization Science

Abstract

Does national culture influence entrepreneurship? Given that entrepreneurship and the economic, formal institutional, and cultural characteristics of nations are deeply intertwined and co-vary, it is difficult to isolate the effect of culture on entrepreneurship. In this study, we examine the self-employment choices of second-generation immigrants who were born, educated, and currently live in one country, but were raised by parents stemming from another country. We argue that entrepreneurship is influenced by durable, portable, and intergenerationally transmitted cultural imprints such that second-generation immigrants are more likely to become entrepreneurs if their parents originate from countries characterized by a strong entrepreneurial culture. Our multilevel analysis of two independent samples –65,323 second-generation immigrants of 52 different ancestries who were born, raised, and live in the United States and 4,165 second-generation immigrants of 31 ancestries in Europe– shows that entrepreneurial culture is positively associated with the likelihood that individuals are entrepreneurs. Our results are robust to alternative non-cultural explanations, such as differences in resource holdings, labor market discrimination, and direct parent-child linkages. Overall, our study highlights the durability, portability, and intergenerational transmission of entrepreneurial culture as well as the profound impact of national culture on entrepreneurship.

• Item Type: MPRA Paper
• Language: English
• Keywords: Entrepreneurship, National culture, Cross-Cultural Studies
• Subjects: A - General Economics and Teaching > A1 - General Economics > A13 - Relation of Economics to Social Values; J - Labor and Demographic Economics > J2 - Demand and Supply of Labor > J24 - Human Capital ; Skills ; Occupational Choice ; Labor Productivity; J - Labor and Demographic Economics > J6 - Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers > J61 - Geographic Labor Mobility ; Immigrant Workers; L - Industrial Organization > L2 - Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior > L26 - Entrepreneurship; M - Business Administration and Business Economics ; Marketing ; Accounting ; Personnel Economics > M1 - Business Administration > M13 - New Firms ; Startups; M - Business Administration and Business Economics ; Marketing ; Accounting ; Personnel Economics > M1 - Business Administration > M16 - International Business Administration; O - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth > O5 - Economywide Country Studies > O57 - Comparative Studies of Countries; Z - Other Special Topics > Z1 - Cultural Economics ; Economic Sociology ; Economic Anthropology > Z10 - General; Z - Other Special Topics > Z1 - Cultural Economics ; Economic Sociology ; Economic Anthropology > Z13 - Economic Sociology ; Economic Anthropology ; Social and Economic Stratification

References

Acemoglu, D., Johnson, S., & Robinson, J. A. (2001). The colonial origins of comparative development: An empirical investigation. American Economic Review, 91(5), 1369–1401.

Acs, Z. J., Desai, S., & Hessels, J. (2008). Entrepreneurship, economic development and institutions. Small Business Economics, 31(3), 219–234.

Ahn, T. (2010). Attitudes toward risk and self-employment of young workers. Labour Economics, 17(2), 434–442.

Aldrich, H. E., & Cliff, J. E. (2003). The pervasive effects of family on entrepreneurship: Toward a family embeddedness perspective. Journal of Business Venturing, 18(5), 573–596.

Aldrich, H. E., & Waldinger, R. (1990). Ethnicity and Entrepreneurship. Annual Review of Sociology, 16(1), 111–135.

Alesina, A., Algan, Y., Cahuc, P., & Giuliano, P. (2015). Family values and the regulation of labor. Journal of the European Economic Association, 13(4), 599–630.

Alesina, A., & Fuchs-Schündeln, N. (2007). Good-bye Lenin (or not?): The effect of communism on people’s preferences. American Economic Review, 97(4), 1507–1528.

Alesina, A., & Giuliano, P. (2010). The power of the family. Journal of Economic Growth, 15(2), 93–125.

Alesina, A., & Giuliano, P. (2014). Family Ties. In Handbook of Economic Growth (Vol. 2, pp. 177–215). Elsevier B.V.

Alesina, A., & Giuliano, P. (2015). Culture and Institutions. Journal of Economic Literature, 53(4), 898–944.

Algan, Y., Dustmann, C., Glitz, A., & Manning, A. (2010). The Economic situation of first and second-generation immigrants in France, Germany and the United Kingdom. Economic Journal, 120(542), F4–F30.

Amorós, J. E., Bosma, N., & Levie, J. (2013). Ten years of Global Entrepreneurship Monitor: Accomplishments and prospects. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Venturing, 5(2), 120–152.

Anderson, B. S., Wennberg, K., & McMullen, J. S. (2019). Enhancing quantitative theory-testing entrepreneurship research. Journal of Business Venturing, 35(5), 1–11.

Åstebro, T. B., Chen, J., & Thompson, P. (2011). Stars and misfits: Self-employment and labor market frictions. Management Science, 57(11), 1999–2017.

Autio, E., & Acs, Z. J. (2010). Intellectual property protection and the formation of entrepreneurial growth aspirations. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 4(3), 234–251.

Autio, E., Pathak, S., & Wennberg, K. (2013). Consequences of cultural practices for entrepreneurial behaviors. Journal of International Business Studies, 44(4), 334–362.

Azoulay, P., Liu, C. C., & Stuart, T. E. (2017). Social influence given (partially) deliberate matching: Career imprints in the creation of academic entrepreneurs. American Journal of Sociology, 122(4), 1223–1271.

Bacq, S., Hartog, C., & Hoogendoorn, B. (2016). Beyond the Moral Portrayal of Social Entrepreneurs: An Empirical Approach to Who They Are and What Drives Them. Journal of Business Ethics, 133(4), 703–718.

Barro, R. J., & Lee, J. W. (2013). A new data set of educational attainment in the world, 1950-2010. Journal of Development Economics, 104, 184–198.

Barro, R. J., & McCleary, R. M. (2003). Religion and economic growth across countries. American Sociological Review, 68(5), 760–781.

Beugelsdijk, S. (2007). Entrepreneurial culture, regional innovativeness and economic growth. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 17(2), 187–210.

Beugelsdijk, S., Kostova, T., & Roth, K. (2017). An overview of Hofstede-inspired country-level culture research in international business since 2006. Journal of International Business Studies, 48(1), 30–47.

Beugelsdijk, S., & Welzel, C. (2018). Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture: Synthesizing Hofstede With Inglehart. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(10), 1469–1505.

Bisin, A., & Verdier, T. (2011). The economics of cultural transmission and socialization. In Handbook of Social Economics (Vol. 1, Issue 1 B, pp. 339–416). Elsevier.

Bjørnskov, C., & Foss, N. J. (2016). Institutions, entrepreneurship, and economic growth: What do we know and what do we still need to know? Academy of Management Perspectives, 30(3), 292–315. Bolt, J., Inklaar, R., de Jong, H., & van Zanden, J. L. (2018). Rebasing “Maddison”: New Income Comparisons and the Shape of Long-Run Economic Development.

Borjas, G. J. (1986). The Self-Employment Experience of Immigrants. Journal of Human Resources, 21(4), 485–506.

Borjas, G. J. (1987). Self-Selection and the Earnings of Immigrants. American Economic Review, 77(4), 531–553.

Borjas, G. J. (1992). Ethnic Capital and Intergenerational Mobility. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 107(1), 123–150.

Borjas, G. J. (1995). Ethnicity, Neighborhoods, and Human-Capital Externalities. American Economic Review, 85(3), 365–390.

Borjas, G. J. (2014). Immigration Economics. In Immigration Economics. Harvard University Press. Bosma, N. (2013). The Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM) and Its Impact on Entrepreneurship Research. Foundations and Trends® in Entrepreneurship, 9(2), 143–248.

Bowen, H. P., & De Clercq, D. (2008). Institutional context and the allocation of entrepreneurial effort. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(4), 747–767.

Brandstätter, H. (2011). Personality aspects of entrepreneurship: A look at five meta-analyses. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(3), 222–230.

Busenitz, L. W., & Lau, C.-M. (1996). A cross-cultural cognitive model of new venture creation. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 20(4), 25–40.

Caliendo, M., Fossen, F. M., & Kritikos, A. S. (2009). Risk attitudes of nascent entrepreneurs-new evidence from an experimentally validated survey. Small Business Economics, 32(2), 153–167.

Card, D., Dinardo, J., & Estes, E. (2000). The More Things Change: Immigrants and the Children of Immigrants in the 1940s, the 1970s, and the 1990s. In G. J. Borjas (Ed.), Issues in the Economics of Immigration (Vol. 54, pp. 227–270). University of Chicago Press.

Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., Feldman, M. W., Chen, K. H., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1982). Theory and observation in cultural transmission. Science, 218(4567), 19–27.

Cesarini, D., Dawes, C. T., Johannesson, M., Lichtenstein, P., & Wallace, B. (2009). Genetic variation in preferences for giving and risk taking. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 124(2), 809–842.

Chiswick, B. R. (1978). The Effect of Americanization on the Earnings of Foreign-born Men. Journal of Political Economy, 86(5), 897–921.

Chiswick, B. R. (1999). Immigration Policy and Immigrant Quality: Are Immigrants Favorably Self-Selected? American Economic Review, 89(2), 181–185.

Clark, K., & Drinkwater, S. (1998). Ethnicity and self-employment in Britain. Oxford Bulletin of Economics & Statistics, 60(3), 383–407.

Collins, C. J., Hanges, P. J., & Locke, E. A. (2004). The Relationship of Achievement Motivation to Entrepreneurial Behavior: A Meta-Analysis. Human Performance, 17(1), 95–117.

Dabić, M., Vlačić, B., Paul, J., Dana, L. P., Sahasranamam, S., & Glinka, B. (2020). Immigrant entrepreneurship: A review and research agenda. Journal of Business Research, 113, 25–38.

Daniels, C., Herrington, M., & Kew, P. (2016). GEM 2015 / 2016 Report on Entrepreneurial Financing. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor.

Davidsson, P. (2016). Researching Entrepreneurship: Conceptualization and Design (Z. J. Acs & D. B. Audretsch (eds.); 2nd ed.). Springer.

Davis, L. S., & Williamson, C. R. (2016). Culture and the regulation of entry. Journal of Comparative Economics, 44(4), 1055–1083.

Devinney, T. M., & Hohberger, J. (2017). The past is prologue: Moving on from Culture’s Consequences. Journal of International Business Studies, 48(1), 48–62.

Dheer, R. J. S. (2018). Entrepreneurship by immigrants: a review of existing literature and directions for future research. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 1–60.

Díez-Martín, F., Blanco-González, A., & Prado-Román, C. (2016). Explaining nation-wide differences in entrepreneurial activity: a legitimacy perspective. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 12(4), 1079–1102.

Djankov, S., La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., & Shleifer, A. (2002). The regulation of entry. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 117(1), 1–37.

Doepke, M., & Zilibotti, F. (2017). Parenting With Style: Altruism and Paternalism in Intergenerational Preference Transmission. Econometrica, 85(5), 1331–1371.

Dohmen, T., Falk, A., Huffman, D., & Sunde, U. (2012). The Intergenerational Transmission of Risk and Trust Attitudes. Review of Economic Studies, 79(2), 645–677.

Drouhot, L. G., & Nee, V. (2019). Assimilation and the Second Generation in Europe and America: Blending and Segregating Social Dynamics Between Immigrants and Natives. Annual Review of Sociology, 45(1), 177–199.

Dunn, T., & Holtz-Eakin, D. (2000). Financial Capital, Human Capital, and the Transition to Self‐Employment: Evidence from Intergenerational Links. Journal of Labor Economics, 18(2), 282–305.

ESS. (2020a). European Social Survey Cumulative File, ESS 1-8 (2020). Data file edition 1.0. NSD - Norwegian Centre for Research Data, Norway - Data Archive and distributor of ESS data for ESS ERIC. ESS. (2020b). European Social Survey Round 9 Data. Data file edition 3.0 NSD - Norwegian Centre for Research Data, Norway – Data Archive and distributor of ESS data for ESS ERIC. :NSD - Norwegian Centre for Research Data, Norway – Data Archive and distributor of ESS data for ESS ERIC.

Estrin, S., Korosteleva, J., & Mickiewicz, T. M. (2013). Which institutions encourage entrepreneurial growth aspirations? Journal of Business Venturing, 28(4), 564–580.

Estrin, S., & Mickiewicz, T. M. (2011). Entrepreneurship in Transition Economies: The Role of Institutions and Generational Change. In M. Minniti (Ed.), The Dynamics of Entrepreneurship: Evidence from Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Data (Issue 4805, pp. 181–208). Oxford University Press Oxford.

Estrin, S., Mickiewicz, T. M., & Rebmann, A. (2017). Prospect theory and the effects of bankruptcy laws on entrepreneurial aspirations. Small Business Economics, 48(4), 977–997.

Estrin, S., Mickiewicz, T. M., & Stephan, U. (2013). Entrepreneurship, Social Capital, and Institutions: Social and Commercial Entrepreneurship Across Nations. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 37(3), 479–504.

Estrin, S., Mickiewicz, T. M., & Stephan, U. (2016). Human capital in social and commercial entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Venturing, 31(4), 449–467.

Etzioni, A. (1987). Entrepreneurship, adaptation and legitimation: a macro-behavioral perspective. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 8(2), 175–189.

Eurobarometer. (2007). Flash Eurobarometer 192: Entrepreneurship Survey of the EU (25 Member States), United States, Iceland and Norway. In Analytical Report European Commission (Issue 192, p. 185).

Eurobarometer. (2010). Flash Eurobarometer 283: Entrepreneurship in the EU and beyond - A survey in the EU, EFTA countries, Croatia, Turkey, the US, Japan, South Korea and China. In Analytical Report European Commission. (Issue 283).

Eurobarometer. (2012). Flash Eurobarometer 354: Entrepreneurship in the EU and beyond. In Analytical Report European Commission (Issue 354).

Eurostat. (2015). Regions in the European Union - Nomenclature of territorial units for statistics - NUTS 2013/EU-28. In Statistics (p. 156). Publications Office of the European Union, 2015.

Evans, D. S., & Leighton, L. S. (1989). Some Empirical Aspects of Entrepreneurship. American Economic Review, 79(3), 519–535.

EVS. (2019). European Values Study 2017: Integrated Dataset (EVS 2017), ZA7500 Data file Version 2.0.0. In GESIS Data Archive. GESIS Data Archive.

Fairlie, R. W., & Krashinsky, H. A. (2012). Liquidity Constraints, Household Wealth, and Entrepreneurship Revisited. Review of Income and Wealth, 58(2), 279–306.

Fairlie, R. W., & Lofstrom, M. (2015). Immigration and Entrepreneurship. In B. R. Chiswick & P. W. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of the Economics of International Migration (Vol. 1B, pp. 877–911). Elsevier B.V.

Fairlie, R. W., & Meyer, B. D. (1996). Ethnic and racial self-employment differences and possible explanations. Journal of Human Resources, 31(4), 757–793.

Fairlie, R. W., & Meyer, B. D. (2000). Trends in self-employment among white and black men during the twentieth century. Journal of Human Resources, 35(4), 643–669.

Fairlie, R. W., & Robb, A. (2007). Families, human capital, and small business: Evidence from the characteristics of business owners survey. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 60(2), 225–245.

Farré, L., & Vella, F. (2013). The Intergenerational Transmission of Gender Role Attitudes and its Implications for Female Labour Force Participation. Economica, 80(318), 219–247.

Fernández, R. (2007). Alfred Marshall lecture women, work, and culture. Journal of the European Economic Association, 5(2–3), 305–332.

Fernández, R. (2011). Does culture matter? In Handbook of Social Economics (Vol. 1, Issue 1 B, pp. 481–510). North-Holland.

Fernández, R., & Fogli, A. (2009). Culture: An empirical investigation of beliefs, work, and fertility. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 1(1), 146–177.

Flood, S., King, M., Rodgers, R., Ruggles, S., & Warren, J. R. (2020). Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, Current Population Survey: Version 8.0 [dataset]. Minneapolis, MN: IPUMS, 2020.

Frese, M., & Gielnik, M. M. (2014). The Psychology of Entrepreneurship. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1(1), 413–438.

Freytag, A., & Thurik, R. (2007). Entrepreneurship and its determinants in a cross-country setting. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 17(2), 117–131.

Fritsch, M., & Wyrwich, M. (2019). Regional Trajectories of Entrepreneurship, Knowledge, and Growth (Z. J. Acs & D. B. Audretsch (eds.); Vol. 40). Springer.

Galor, O., & Michalopoulos, S. (2012). Evolution and the growth process: Natural selection of entrepreneurial traits. Journal of Economic Theory, 147(2), 759–780.

Giuliano, P. (2007). Living Arrangements in Western Europe: Does Cultural Origin Matter? Journal of the European Economic Association, 5(5), 927–952.

Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). (2018). Global Report 2017/18.

Godley, A. C. (2009). Migration of Entrepreneurs. In A. Basu, M. Casson, N. Wadeson, & B. Yeung (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Entrepreneurship (Vol. 1). Oxford University Press.

Gören, E. (2017). The persistent effects of novelty-seeking traits on comparative economic development. Journal of Development Economics, 126, 112–126.

Gorodnichenko, Y., & Roland, G. (2017). Culture, institutions, and the wealth of nations. Review of Economics and Statistics, 99(3), 402–416.

Grilo, I., & Thurik, A. R. (2008). Determinants of entrepreneurial engagement levels in Europe and the US. Industrial and Corporate Change, 17(6), 1113–1145.

Guiso, L., Sapienza, P., & Zingales, L. (2006). Does Culture Affect Economic Outcomes? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20(2), 23–48.

Haerpfer, C., Inglehart, R., Moreno, A., Welzel, C., Kizilova, K., Diez-Medrano, J., Lagos, M., Norris, P., Ponarin, E., Puranen, B., & et al. (2021). World Values Survey Time-Series (1981-2020) Cross-National Data-Set. Data File Version 2.0.0. JD Systems Institute & WVSA Secretariat.

Hayton, J. C., & Cacciotti, G. (2013). Is there an entrepreneurial culture? A review of empirical research. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 25(9–10), 708–731.

Hayton, J. C., George, G., & Zahra, S. A. (2002). National Culture and Entrepreneurship: A Review of Behavioral Research. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 26(4), 33–52.

Hegde, D., & Tumlinson, J. (2014). Does Social Proximity Enhance Business Partnerships? Theory and Evidence from Ethnicity’s Role in U.S. Venture Capital. Management Science, 60(9), 2355–2380.

Hegde, D., & Tumlinson, J. (2021). Information frictions and entrepreneurship. Strategic Management Journal, 42(3), 491–528.

Henrekson, M., & Sanandaji, T. (2011). The interaction of entrepreneurship and institutions. Journal of Institutional Economics, 7(1), 47–75.

Hofferth, S. L., Flood, S. M., Sobek, M., & Backman, D. (2020). American Time Use Survey Data Extract Builder: Version 2.8 [dataset] https://www.atusdata.org https://doi.org/10.18128/D060.V2.8. IPUMS.

Hofstede, G. H. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations across Nations. Sage.

Hofstede, G. H., Noorderhaven, N. G., Thurik, A. R., Uhlaner, L. M., Wennekers, A. R. M., & Wildeman, R. E. (2004). Culture’s role in entrepreneurship: Self-employment out of dissatisfaction. In T. E. Brown & J. Ulijn (Eds.), Innovation, Entrepreneurship and Culture The Interaction between Technology, Progress and Economic Growth (Issue 2001, pp. 162–203). Edward Elgar.

House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P. W., & Gupta, V. (2004). Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies. Sage publications.

Hout, M., & Rosen, H. S. (2000). Self-Employment, Family Background, and Race. Journal of Human Resources, 35(4), 670–692.

ILO. (2017). International Labour Organization: ILOSTAT Employment indicators.

Inglehart, R., & Baker, W. E. (2000). Modernization, cultural change, and the persistence of traditional values. American Sociological Review, 65(1), 19–51.

Jaeger, D. A., Dohmen, T., Falk, A., Huffman, D., Sunde, U., & Bonin, H. (2010). Direct Evidence on Risk Attitudes and Migration. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 92(3), 684–689.

Jones, M. V., Coviello, N. E., & Tang, Y. K. (2011). International Entrepreneurship research (1989–2009): A domain ontology and thematic analysis. Journal of Business Venturing, 26(6), 632–659.

Kacperczyk, A. O. (2013). Social influence and entrepreneurship: The effect of university peers on entrepreneurial entry. Organization Science, 24(3), 664–683.

Kashima, Y., & Kashima, E. S. (2003). Individualism, GNP, Climate, And Pronoun Drop: Is Individualism Determined by Affluence and Climate, or Does Language Use Play a Role? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34(1), 125–134.

Kerr, S. P., & Kerr, W. R. (2017). Immigrant Entrepreneurship. In J. Haltiwanger, E. Hurst, J. Miranda, & A. Schoar (Eds.), Measuring Entrepreneurial Businesses: Current Knowledge and Challenges (Vol. 75, pp. 187–250). University of Chicago Press.

Kerr, S. P., & Kerr, W. R. (2020). Immigrant entrepreneurship in America: Evidence from the survey of business owners 2007 & 2012. Research Policy, 49(3), 103918.

Kerr, S. P., Kerr, W. R., & Dalton, M. (2019). Risk attitudes and personality traits of entrepreneurs and venture team members. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(36), 17712–17716.

Kerr, S. P., Kerr, W. R., & Xu, T. (2018). Personality Traits of Entrepreneurs: A Review of Recent Literature. Foundations and Trends® in Entrepreneurship, 14(3), 279–356.

Kihlstrom, R. E., & Laffont, J.-J. (1979). A General Equilibrium Entrepreneurial Theory of Firm Formation Based on Risk Aversion. Journal of Political Economy, 87(4), 719–748.

Kiley, K., & Vaisey, S. (2020). Measuring Stability and Change in Personal Culture Using Panel Data. American Sociological Review, 000312242092153.

Kim, P. H., & Li, M. (2014). Seeking Assurances When Taking Action: Legal Systems, Social Trust, and Starting Businesses in Emerging Economies. Organization Studies, 35(3), 359–391.

Kirkman, B. L., Lowe, K. B., & Gibson, C. B. (2006). A quarter century of culture’s consequences: A review of empirical research incorporating Hofstede’s cultural values framework. Journal of International Business Studies, 37(3), 285–320.

Kleinhempel, J., Beugelsdijk, S., & Klasing, M. J. (2022). The Changing Role of Social Capital During the Venture Creation Process: A Multilevel Study. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 46(2), 297–330.

Knack, S., & Keefer, P. (1997). Does social capital have an economic payoff? A cross-country investigation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(4), 1251–1288.

Korosteleva, J., & Mickiewicz, T. M. (2011). Start-up financing in the age of globalization. Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, 47(3), 23–49.

Kroeber, A. L., & Kluckhohn, C. (1963). Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Vintage Books - Alfred A. Knopf Inc. & Random House Inc. (Reprint of Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. XLVII(1), 1952, Harvard University).

Kwon, S.-W., & Arenius, P. (2010). Nations of entrepreneurs: A social capital perspective. Journal of Business Venturing, 25(3), 315–330.

Kwon, S.-W., Heflin, C., & Ruef, M. (2013). Community Social Capital and Entrepreneurship. American Sociological Review, 78(6), 980–1008.

Laskovaia, A., Shirokova, G., & Morris, M. H. (2017). National culture, effectuation, and new venture performance: global evidence from student entrepreneurs. Small Business Economics, 49(3), 687–709.

Laspita, S., Breugst, N., Heblich, S., & Patzelt, H. (2012). Intergenerational transmission of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 27(4), 414–435.

Lassmann, A., & Busch, C. (2015). Revisiting native and immigrant entrepreneurial activity. Small Business Economics, 45(4), 841–873.

Lee, S. H., Yamakawa, Y., Peng, M. W., & Barney, J. B. (2011). How do bankruptcy laws affect entrepreneurship development around the world? Journal of Business Venturing, 26(5), 505–520.

Levie, J., & Autio, E. (2008). A theoretical grounding and test of the GEM model. Small Business Economics, 31(3), 235–263.

Levie, J., & Autio, E. (2011). Regulatory Burden, Rule of Law, and Entry of Strategic Entrepreneurs: An International Panel Study. Journal of Management Studies, 48(6), 1392–1419.

Levine, R., & Rubinstein, Y. (2017). Smart and illicit: Who becomes an entrepreneur and do they earn more? Quarterly Journal of Economics, 132(2), 963–1018.

Li, D. D., Feng, J., & Jiang, H. (2006). Institutional entrepreneurs. American Economic Review, 96(2), 358–362.

Li, K., Griffin, D., Yue, H., & Zhao, L. (2013). How does culture influence corporate risk-taking? Journal of Corporate Finance, 23, 1–22.

Lindquist, M. J., Sol, J., & Praag, M. Van. (2015). Why Do Entrepreneurial Parents Have Entrepreneurial Children? Journal of Labor Economics, 33(2), 269–296.

Luttmer, E. F. P., & Singhal, M. (2011). Culture, context, and the taste for redistribution. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 3(1), 157–179.

Marinoni, A. (2022). Immigration and Entrepreneurship: The Role of Enclaves. Management Science, in press.

Marshall, M. G., Gurr, T. R., & Jaggers, K. (2017). Polity IV Project, Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800-2016 [dataset]. https://www.systemicpeace.org/index.html.

Mata, R., Josef, A. K., & Hertwig, R. (2016). Propensity for Risk Taking Across the Life Span and Around the Globe. Psychological Science, 27(2), 231–243.

McClelland, D. C. (1961). The Achieving Society. Van Nostrand Co.

McGrath, R. G., MacMillan, I. C., & Scheinberg, S. (1992). Elitists, risk-takers, and rugged individualists? An exploratory analysis of cultural differences between entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs. Journal of Business Venturing, 7(2), 115–135.

Michel, J. B., Kui Shen, Y., Presser Aiden, A., Veres, A., Gray, M. K., Pickett, J. P., Hoiberg, D., Clancy, D., Norvig, P., Orwant, J., Pinker, S., Nowak, M. A., & Aiden, E. L. (2011). Quantitative analysis of culture using millions of digitized books. Science, 331(6014), 176–182.

Mickiewicz, T. M., & Rebmann, A. (2020). Entrepreneurship as Trust. Foundations and Trends® in Entrepreneurship, 16(3), 244–309.

Minnesota Population Center. (2018). IPUMS. Integrated Public Use Microdata Series, International: Version 7.1 [dataset]. IPUMS - Minnesota Population Center.

Mitchell, R. K., Smith, B., Seawright, K. W., & Morse, E. A. (2000). Cross-cultural cognitions and the venture creation decision. Academy of Management Journal, 43(5), 974–993.

Nakao, K., & Treas, J. (1989). Computing 1989 Occupational Prestige Scores. In GSS Methodological Report No 70.

Nakao, K., & Treas, J. (1994). Updating Occupational Prestige and Socioeconomic Scores: How the New Measures Measure up. Sociological Methodology, 24, 1-72.

Nanda, R., & Sørensen, J. B. (2010). Workplace peers and entrepreneurship. Management Science, 56(7), 1116–1126.

Necker, S., & Voskort, A. (2014). Intergenerational transmission of risk attitudes - A revealed preference approach. European Economic Review, 65, 66–89.

Nicolaou, N., Shane, S., Cherkas, L., Hunkin, J., & Spector, T. D. (2008). Is the Tendency to Engage in Entrepreneurship Genetic? Management Science, 54(1), 167–179.

Nikolaev, B., Boudreaux, C. J., & Wood, M. (2020). Entrepreneurship and Subjective Well-Being: The Mediating Role of Psychological Functioning. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 44(3), 557–586.

Nofsinger, J. R., & Wang, W. (2011). Determinants of start-up firm external financing worldwide. Journal of Banking and Finance, 35(9), 2282–2294.

North, D. C. (1990). Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press.

Noseleit, F. (2014). Female self-employment and children. Small Business Economics, 43(3), 549–569.

Obradovich, N., Özak, Ö., Martín, I., Ortuno-Ortin, I., Awad, E., Cebrián, M., Cuevas, R., Desmet, K., Rahwan, I., & Cuevas, Á. (2020). Expanding the Measurement of Culture with a Sample of Two Billion Humans. In National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 27827. (No. 27827).

OECD. (2018). Self Employment Rate. https://doi.org/10.1787/fb58715e-en

Pacheco, D. F., York, J. G., Dean, T. J., & Sarasvathy, S. D. (2010). The coevolution of institutional entrepreneurship: A tale of two theories. Journal of Management, 36(4), 974–1010.

Pager, D., Western, B., & Bonokowski, B. (2009). Discrimination in a Low Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment. American Sociological Review, 74(5), 777–799.

Parker, S. C. (2018). The Economics of Entrepreneurship. Cambridge University Press.

Peterson, M. F., & Barreto, T. S. (2018). Interpreting societal culture value dimensions. Journal of International Business Studies, 49(9), 1190–1207.

Qin, F., & Estrin, S. (2015). Does Social Influence Span Time and Space? Evidence from Indian Returnee Entrepreneurs. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 9(3), 226–242.

Rabe-Hesketh, S., & Skrondal, A. (2012). Multilevel and longitudinal modeling using Stata (3rd ed.). STATA press.

Rasbash, J., Steele, F., Browne, W. J., & Goldstein, H. (2012). A User’s Guide to MLwiN, v2. 26. Centre for Multilevel Modelling, University of Bristol. In Centre for Multilevel Modelling, University of Bristol.

Rauch, A., & Frese, M. (2007a). The psychology of entrepreneurship (J. R. Baum, M. Frese, & R. A. Baron (eds.); pp. 41–65). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Rauch, A., & Frese, M. (2007b). Let’s put the person back into entrepreneurship research: A meta-analysis on the relationship between business owners’ personality traits, business creation, and success. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 16(4), 353–385.

Reynolds, P. D., Bosma, N., Autio, E., Hunt, S., De Bono, N., Servais, I., Lopez-Garcia, P., & Chin, N. (2005). Global entrepreneurship monitor: Data collection design and implementation 1998-2003. Small Business Economics, 24(3), 205–231.

Roach, M., & Sauermann, H. (2015). Founder or joiner? the role of preferences and context in shaping different entrepreneurial interests. Management Science, 61(9), 2160–2184.

Robb, A. M., & Fairlie, R. W. (2007). Access to financial capital among U.S. businesses: The case of African American firms. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 612(2), 47–72.

Robinson, W. S. (1950). Ecological Correlations and the Behavior of Individuals. American Sociological Review, 15(3), 351–357.

Rocha, V., & Van Praag, M. (2020). Mind the gap: The role of gender in entrepreneurial career choice and social influence by founders. Strategic Management Journal, 41(5), 841–866.

Ruef, M. (2010). Entrepreneurial groups. Historical Foundations of Entrepreneurship Research, 205–228.

Ruef, M. (2020). The household as a source of labor for entrepreneurs: Evidence from New York City during industrialization. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 14(1), 20–42.

Ruggles, S., Flood, S., Goeken, R., Grover, J., Meyer, E., Pacas, J., & Sobek, M. (2019). Integrated Public Use Microdata Series: Version 9.0 [dataset]. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.

Sanders, J. M., & Nee, V. (1996). Immigrant Self-Employment: The Family as Social Capital and the Value of Human Capital. American Sociological Review, 61(2), 231–249.

Sarkees, M. R., & Wayman, F. (2010). Resort to War: 1816 - 2007. COW War Data, 1816 - 2007 (v4.0). Washington DC: CQ Press. CQ Press.

Schuler, R. S., & Rogovsky, N. (1998). Understanding compensation practice variations across firms: The impact of national culture. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(1), 159–177.

Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Beyond Individualism-Collectivism: New Cultural Dimensions of Values. In U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, Ç. Kâğitçibaşi, S.-C. Choi, & G. Yoon (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and application (pp. 85–119). Sage.

Schwartz, S. H. (2003a). A Proposal for Measuring Value Orientations across Nations. In Questionnaire Package of the European Social Survey (pp. 259–319). European Social Survey.

Schwartz, S. H. (2003b). Basic human values: Their content and structure across countries. In Values and work.

Shane, S. (1993). Cultural influences on national rates of innovation. Journal of Business Venturing, 8(1), 59–73.

Siegel, J. I., Licht, A. N., & Schwartz, S. H. (2013). Egalitarianism, cultural distance, and foreign direct investment: A new approach. Organization Science, 24(4), 1174–1194.

Sinkovics, N., & Reuber, A. R. (2021). Beyond disciplinary silos: A systematic analysis of the migrant entrepreneurship literature. Journal of World Business, 56(4), 101223.

Skriabikova, O. J., Dohmen, T., & Kriechel, B. (2014). New evidence on the relationship between risk attitudes and self-employment. Labour Economics, 30, 176–184.

Smith, T. W., Davern, M., Freese, J., & Hout, M. (2018). General Social Surveys (GSS), 1972-2016 [machine-readable data file] Principal Investigator, Smith, Tom W.; Co-Principal Investigators, Peter V. Marsden and Michael Hout. NORC at the University of Chicago [producer and distributor].

Snijders, T. A. B., & Bosker, R. J. (2012). Multilevel Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Multilevel Modeling (2nd ed.). Sage Publishers.

Sørensen, J. B. (2007). Closure and Exposure: Mechanisms in the Intergenerational Transmission of Self-employment. In M. Ruef & M. Lounsbury (Eds.), Research in the Sociology of Organizations (25th ed., Vol. 25, Issue SUPPL., pp. 83–124).

Spolaore, E., & Wacziarg, R. (2020). Ancestry, Language and Culture. In V. Ginsburgh & S. Weber (Eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Economics and Language.

Staiger, D., & Stock, J. H. (1997). Instrumental Variables Regression with Weak Instruments. Econometrica, 65(3), 557.

Stenholm, P., Acs, Z. J., & Wuebker, R. (2013). Exploring country-level institutional arrangements on the rate and type of entrepreneurial activity. Journal of Business Venturing, 28(1), 176–193.

Stephan, U. (2022). Cross-Cultural Innovation and Entrepreneurship. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 9(1), 277–308.

Stephan, U., & Pathak, S. (2016). Beyond cultural values? Cultural leadership ideals and entrepreneurship. Journal of Business Venturing, 31(5), 505–523.

Stephan, U., & Uhlaner, L. M. (2010). Performance-based vs socially supportive culture: A cross-national study of descriptive norms and entrepreneurship. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(8), 1347–1364.

Stephan, U., Uhlaner, L. M., & Stride, C. (2015). Institutions and social entrepreneurship: The role of institutional voids, institutional support, and institutional configurations. Journal of International Business Studies, 46(3), 308–331.

Stewart, W. H., & Roth, P. L. (2001). Risk propensity differences between entrepreneurs and managers: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(1), 145–153.

Stewart, W. H., & Roth, P. L. (2007). A meta-analysis of achievement motivation differences between entrepreneurs and managers. Journal of Small Business Management, 45(4), 401–421.

Stewart, W. H., Watson, W. E., Carland, J. C., & Carland, J. W. (1999). A proclivity for entrepreneurship: A comparison of entrepreneurs, small business owners, and corporate managers. Journal of Business Venturing, 14(2), 189–214.

Stock, J. H., & Yogo, M. (2005). Testing for Weak Instruments in Linear IV Regressions. In D. W. . Andrews & J. H. Stock (Eds.), Identification and Inference for Econometric Models (pp. 80–108). Cambridge University Press., New York.

Stuetzer, M., Obschonka, M., Audretsch, D. B., Wyrwich, M., Rentfrow, P. J., Coombes, M., Shaw-Taylor, L., & Satchell, M. (2016). Industry structure, entrepreneurship, and culture: An empirical analysis using historical coalfields. European Economic Review, 86, 52–72.

Terjesen, S., Hessels, J., & Li, D. (2016). Comparative International Entrepreneurship: A Review and Research Agenda. Journal of Management, 42(1), 299–344.

Tonoyan, V., Strohmeyer, R., & Jennings, J. E. (2020). Gender Gaps in Perceived Start-up Ease: Implications of Sex-based Labor Market Segregation for Entrepreneurship across 22 European Countries. Administrative Science Quarterly, 65(1), 181–225.

Tosi, H. L., & Greckhamer, T. (2004). Culture and CEO compensation. Organization Science, 15(6), 657–670.

Uhlaner, L. M., & Thurik, A. R. (2007). Postmaterialism influencing total entrepreneurial activity across nations. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 17(2), 161–185.

UN. (2017). Trends in International Migrant Stock: The 2017 Revision (United Nations database, POP/DB/MIG/Stock/Rev.2017). United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division.

UNHCR. (2020). UNHCR - Refugee Statistics.

United States Department of State. (1985). Report of the Visa Office 1980. Department of State Publication #9444.

Urbano, D., & Alvarez, C. (2014). Institutional dimensions and entrepreneurial activity: An international study. Small Business Economics, 42(4), 703–716.

Urbano, D., Aparicio, S., & Audretsch, D. B. (2019). Institutions, entrepreneurship, and economic performance (Z. J. Acs & D. B. Audretsch (eds.)). Springer.

Vladasel, T., Lindquist, M. J., Sol, J., & van Praag, M. (2021). On the origins of entrepreneurship: Evidence from sibling correlations. Journal of Business Venturing, 36(5), 10278.

Weber, M. (1930). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Routledge Classics.

Wennekers, S., Thurik, A. R., van Stel, A., & Noorderhaven, N. G. (2007). Uncertainty avoidance and the rate of business ownership across 21 OECD countries, 1976--2004. Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 17(2), 133–160.

Wennekers, S., & Thurik, R. (1999). Linking Entrepreneurship and Economic Growth. Small Business Economics, 13(1), 27–56.

Wennekers, S., van Stel, A., Thurik, A. R., & Reynolds, P. D. (2005). Nascent entrepreneurship and the level of economic development. Small Business Economics, 24(3), 293–309.

Williamson, O. E. (2000). The New Institutional Economics: Taking Stock, Looking Ahead. Journal of Economic Literature, 38(3), 595–613.

Wilson, K. L., & Portes, A. (1980). Immigrant Enclaves: An Analysis of the Labor Market Experiences of Cubans in Miami. American Journal of Sociology, 86(2), 295–319.

Wooldridge, J. M. (2015). Control function methods in applied econometrics. Journal of Human Resources, 50(2), 420–445.

Wyrwich, M. (2013). Can socioeconomic heritage produce a lost generation with regard to entrepreneurship? Journal of Business Venturing, 28(5), 667–682.

Wyrwich, M. (2015). Entrepreneurship and the intergenerational transmission of values. Small Business Economics, 45(1), 191–213.

Yuengert, A. M. (1995). Testing Hypotheses of Immigrant Self-Employment. Journal of Human Resources, 30(1), 194–204.

Zhao, H., & Seibert, S. E. (2006). The Big Five Personality Dimensions and Entrepreneurial Status: A Meta-Analytical Review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 259–271.

Zhou, M. (2004). Revisiting Ethnic Entrepreneurship: Convergencies, Controversies, and Conceptual Advancements. International Migration Review, 38(3), 1040–1074.

Zumbühl, M., Dohmen, T. J., & Pfann, G. A. (2021). Parental Involvement and the Intergenerational Transmission of Economic Preferences, Attitudes and Personality Traits. Economic Journal, 131(638), 2642–2670.